^r ^'^ 6 *f^ '^"^i2i $p \0 *C5. ^'^^ ■^ «•<>'='• » «? <»< ^^wsb; FOR THE PEOPLE FOR. EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 9f»^ Courtesy of tUr N.-^ York Stat.- Mu?.-uin Plate 40 ■taMHMBRk. r' "«<■ BOB-WHITE <'i'li'iit.s nri/iu'iiniis lirijinitiitiis (Linnatni^ MALE AND FEMALE \ n;it. sizo Birds of America Editor-in-Chief T. Gilbert Pearson PreBidcnt of the National Association of Audubon Societies Consulting Editor John Burroughs Contributing Editors Edward H. Forbush Herbert K. Job state Ornithologist, Massachusetts VViUiam L. Finley Naturalist, Author, and Lecturer Managing Editor George Gladden Economic Ornithologist L. Nelson Nichols Mcniber Linnxan Society Associate Editor J. Ellis Burdick Associate Member of American Ornithologists' Union R. I. Brasher Artists R. Bruce Horsfall Henry Thurston VOLUME TWO The University Society Inc. New York 1923 K Copyright, 1917, by The University Society Inc. Manufactured in the U. S. A. COMPOSITION, PRESSWORK, AND BINDING J. B. LYCN COMPANY, ALBANY, N. Y. CONTENTS OiT-DOOR Bird Sti'dy Order of Gallinaceous Birds Bob-whites and Quails Grouse Turkeys Pheasants Order of Pigeons and Doves Order of Birds of Prey Vultures Eagles, Hawks, and Kites Falcons Caracaras Ospreys Owls .... Order of Parrot-like Birds Order of Cuckoos, Etc. Cuckoo Family Trogons Kingfishers Order of Woodpeckers Order of Goatsuckers, Swifts, Etc. Goatsuckers Swifts .... Hummingbirds Order of Perching Birds Tyrant Flycatchers Larks .... Crows and Jays Starlings ICTERIDiB I'AGE V I I 12 31 34 37 53 S3 58 84 92 93 97 122 125 125 131 132 137 166 166 174 179 189 189 211 214 235 240 [in] OUT-DOOR BIRD STUDY j3) _*. 5m M Bv Edward Howe Forbush State Ornithologist of Massachusetts ATURALLY those who begin to study birds desire, first, to know their names and to be able to recognize them at sight. This is the A B C of bird study — the mere beginning — but nevertheless important. To learn to identify birds readily, the student needs good eyes and ears, a good opera-glass or field-glass, a notebook and pencil, a good book with colored illustrations, and some training in careful observation. It will be a great advantage if there is a museum accessible, where he can see mounted specimens. A small, light-weight opera-glass is all that is necessary for viewing the smaller birds ; for water-fowl or sea birds a marine glass is most useful. To learn the proper use of the opera-glass, select some bird, if possible, that is sitting still. Have your back to the sun. Focus the glass on the tree, and then the bird by noting the position of the branch and sighting the glass as you would a gun. Note the size of the bird. It will be dif^ficult at first to judge the size in inches, but you may compare it with certain common and well-known birds. You may have a scale of sizes, beginning with the Yellow Warbler or Chipping Sparrow, and reading like this: Chipping Sparrow, Song Sparrow, Bluebird, Catbird, Robin, Dove, Crow. Observe these birds well; note the size of each. Turn to your book, and get it in inches. Write it down; commit it to memory'; have it always in mind. By making good use of such a scale, you may become expert in judging size by comparison. Next, the shape of the bird is important. Note whether the bird as a whole is slim or stout. Some allowance may be made as to how the feathers are carried at the time. All birds can raise or lower the feathers of the body at will. If you can see the shape of the beak, you may be able to refer the bird at once to the famity in which it belongs. If it is not much larger or smaller than a Song Sparrow, and has a short, conical bill, probably it is a Sparrow. If it is a little smaller than a Song Sparrow or about the size of a Chippj-, and has a short but slender bill, a trifle curved, probably it is a Warbler, or belongs to some other insect-eating family. The length and shape of the tail are important. Try to see whether the tail is long or short, rounded, square, or forked. If the bird is large, with a hooked beak and long tail, probably it is a Hawk. If the beak is long and straight, or nearly so, the tail short and the legs long, it must be a Heron, or some other wader. The color of the bird is ver\' important; indeed, it is about the only feature ordinarily observed. First, note the color of the upper part, i. e., the top and sides of head, back and sides of neck, back, wings, and tail; next, that of the under parts — throat, front of neck, breast, and belly. Remember that the breast and belly often will seem darker than they really are, on account of being in shade; thus a pure white will seem gray. Be careful to note just where each color actually is; then note any conspicuous mark, for such a mark alone, taken with the size of the bird, often is enough to establish its identity. Many birds have some prominent mark or color by which they may be identified in the field. In this work the notebook and pencil are indispensable. Note down — on the spot — size, shape, color, and markings, also shape and appearance of beak and tail (when you can get them), for future reference. This will help you to identify the bird, and to fix its identification in your memory. [vl vi BIRDS OF AMERICA The expert can determine many birds at a distance by their characteristic flight; and the beginner, by making good use of his opportunities, will soon learn to recognize a Buzzard by its wheeling flight, or a flying Green Heron by the downward bend of its wing-tips. All Woodpeckers have a bounding flight, as they travel by rising for a few wing beats and then sliding downward with the wings partly closed. The Goldfinch also has an up-and-down flight. The Pipit, the Yellow Palm Warbler and the Water-Thrushes all wag the tail up and down while moving about — something not habitual with most other birds. The gait of the bird on the ground may determine the species or at least the family. Crows, Grackles, Blackbirds, Oven-birds, and some others walk, while most birds progress by hopping, although now and then a hopping bird may surprise you by walking a few steps on clear, open ground. The notes of birds serve as an excellent means of identification, although there are a few that imitate well the notes of others. Among these are the Crow, Blue Jay, Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and the famous Mockingbird. As the novice will see colors in the wrong places or fail to see colors in the right places, so he will hear birds wrongly or fail to hear them at all. An ornithologist, if stricken blind, might still get an approximate idea of the number of birds of most species resident in a locality for most birds are vociferous. Many people, however, have great difficulty in recognizing or remembering bird notes. Others are unable to dififerentiate between tones and calls of an entirely different quality. In studying bird songs, the notebook is indispensable. Write down in syllables what the bird seems to say as you hear it at the time. Accent it as the bird accents it, and if you are musical you may even get it by note. These notes may refresh your memory, and help fix the call or song in mind. Birds do not really articulate, or, if they do, the sounds are mostly vowels ; yet we imagine that they enunciate words. In learning the songs of birds you may take the notes of some common loud singer, like the Robin, as a standard, and by comparison determine how those of other species differ from it. This is good training for the ear. Some people cannot see any difference at first between the songs of the Robin and the Wood Thrush, but to the initiated they have nothing in common. In quality of tone, beginners usually see little difference between the songs of the Baltimore Oriole, the Robin, the Scarlet Tanager, and the Rose-breasted Grosbeak; nevertheless, the Oriole's lay is almost a pure whistle, the tune varying much with different individuals; the Robin's song is a bold warble, a little strident in places; the Tanager sings a weaker, finer note, like an undeveloped, hoarse Robin; and the Grosbeak has a beautiful warble, rather loud at times, but perfectly pure and mellow. ■ Unfortunately for the novice, a bird may have two or more distinct songs. Some commonly have many, while no two individual birds of certain species ever sing precisely the same tune ; but this disparity only makes the study of their vocal powers more interesting. Occasionally a very gifted individual will eclipse the performance of all rivals. The caw of the common Crow is well known, but its love notes and its conversational abilities when ministering to its young are seldom recognized. As one advances in the study, the manner in which birds feed, the character of the locality in which they are found, the location and construction of the nests, the size and color of eggs, all will tend toward fixing the identity of birds. In time, one learns to know many birds at a glance, until, almost unconsciously, he comes to the day when most of the birds he sees or hears are old friends. Birds require food, shelter, nesting places, and protection from their enemies. In localities furnishing all these essentials birds always may be found in their seasons. Abroad river valley, with fresh-water meadows, containing small, marshy ponds, if dotted with trees and bordered by farming lands, orchards, and wooded hills, should be an ideal place for birds. When migrating, they appear to stop by preference only where there is an abundance of suitable food with which they may replenish the waste of tissues worn by long flights. OUT-DOOR BIRD STUDY vu At such times birds that have found food attract by their calls others flying by or overhead; these also are heard or seen by others still ; and so they gather from far and near. Beginners in bird study usually choose the spring as the best time for making the acquaintance of the birds, but it is well to begin early in the year, when birds are few, and learn to recognize each species as it comes. It is also well to rememljer that the old males usually come first, and llu' females and young birds later. Early mornings and late afternoons arc usually the best times for observation, partly because most l)irds are then active and singing, and jjarlly because there often is little wind movement then. The least motion is quickly noticed when the branches are still; but when the wind blows, birds are more likely to be overlooked. Also they are more shy and retiring on windy days, when they can spread their wings and be borne away with little effort. Phot'_i,:j;_'.. J 11. I . li'i..:;.aii WILLIAM L. FINLEY MAKING PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF PELICANS Cool days, with strong northwest winds, are unfavorable for bird study. Birds, excepting water-fowl and shore birds, usually seek shelter during heavy rains, but are active during light, warm showers. People, whose study of birds must be confined mainly to the city, can best observe the common birds in large parks or cemeteries, where birds, being protected and seeing people continually, are unsuspicious and may be readily approached. Water birds ma^^ be found usually in spring and fall in ponds of large park systems. July is one of the most interesting months in the bird calendar, for then there are many young birds about, and some of the birds that have reared their young begin to slip away toward the south and shore birds begin to come from the north. The bird seeker must learn to notice every sound and movement in the woods and fields. He must tr>' to follow ever\' strange note to its source. The expert usually hears a bird before he sees it. Some birds are ventriloquists — when the bird is hidden by the leaves, the song seems to come first from one tree, then from another. For this reason the Scarlet Tanager can sometimes be found in summer by going around the place from which the sound of its voice seems to come, or by passing it, and then returning to it. Many birds have the power of singing so softly that they seem to be far away when really just at hand. The Catbird does this quite commonly, and several other species occasionally sing their full songs in the fall as in the spring, except that they are audible Vlll BIRDS OF AMERICA only a few yards away. To find birds one must cultivate the senses of sight and hearing to the utmost. The bird student soon finds that some locahties are better supplied with bird-fife than others. Many species, while migrating, follow or visit such coasts or broad river valleys as lie along or across their natural lines of migration. Even the novice need not be taught how to approach the more common and familiar birds, which seem to court, rather than, to shun human companionship; but there are times when it becomes necessary to get close enough to a rare bird to examine it carefully or to observe its habits, while a near approach to a shy bird may tax the powers of the most skilful observer. WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHER MAKING A PORTRAIT STUDY OF GREAT HORNED OWL To be successful in this, the beginner must imitate, in some respects the behavior of the fox or lynx, animals which are able occasionally to get near enough to wild birds to capture some that the human animal finds difficult to get within range of his field-glass. How are the wild animals enabled to do this? (i) They are inconspicuously or protectively' colored. (2) Their feet are softly padded and their movements noiseless. (3) They go on all fours, crawling close to the ground, and, taking advantage of the cover, keep concealed as much as possible. (4) Their movements are so slow, at need, as to be imperceptible. In all these things we may imitate them. Bird students often are dressed conspicuously, and shod with hard leather. Their tread, as it jars on the delicate senses of the lower animals, seems to shake the ground. The dead wood is broken under foot. They talk, laugh, and even shout with a loud voice. Standing erect, they are exposed to the view of birds for a mile or more around. Some of them wear large headgear, adorned with long feathers, and turn their heads about quickly. Eggs of American Birds PLATE No. 3 1. Crossbill 2. Purple Finch 3. Ruby-throated Hummingbird 4. Goldfinch 5. English Sparrow 6. Vesper Sparrow 7. Grasshopper Sparrow 8. Chipping Sparrow 9. Junco 10. Towhee 11. Crested Flycatcher 12. Phoebe 13. Indigo Bunting 14. Scarlet Tanager 15. Skylark 16. Kingbird 17. Gray Kingbird i3. Wood Pewee 19. Orchard Oriole 20. Baltimore Oriole 21. Blue Jay 22. Meadowlark 23. Bobolink 24. Cowbird 25. Red-winged Blackbird »••• \/ V '♦ ,^ » .1 • •■ ^ ^.^v m % ^a >w 12 13 ^ W 14 16 tm 17 '- ^r 19 1^ 20 T": ■;■■ ■ 11 24 : -4 25 -'•/'ciH tj Ura-^mg, bf Henry Thurt^on Copfright, 1'*17 , bj The t' niiertiij S-jtiety, Ini- EGGS OF AMERICAN BIRDS (Plate Xuniber Three) OUT-DOOR BIRI3 STUDY ix They swing their arms, and move about, pointing, gesticulating and assuming attitudes, all of which no doubt seem menacing and fearsome to the shyer birds. Even such students will sec birds, for many of our feathered friends have become accustomed to strange sounds and antics. But the expert who sees all the birds has taken lessons from the fox — he hunts alone. When one is in the company of others, nature never com])letcly enthralls him. His attention is more or less distracted by his companions; he fails to see and hear all. The bird student should attend entirely to the birds, and then they will requite his singleness of purpose. When alone, he has no one to talk to, and no intcrrui)tions. The human voice warns all creatures from afar of the approach of their arch enem>-, man; let it be stilled, and nature is at peace. We many mufiPle the tread by wearing rubbers, or, better, shoes with rubber soles. Those having merely an outer lift and tap of rubber on heel and toe are best. The rubber will prevent the feet from slipping on rocks and pine-clad hillsides. The light canvas tennis shoes commonly used are not sufficient protection to the feet on rough, stony ground. Leather footgear should not be stiff or squeaky. We may avoid the rustling of dry leaves by choosing for our tramps the early morning, when the dew is on, or the hour succeeding a light shower. Care should be used not to tread on dry sticks so as to break them, as sharp sounds alarm all wild creatures. In dress, avoid black, white, and all striking colors and contrasts. A dull, dead leaf color, like that of the shooting coats ordinarily sold to sportsmen, is good at any time. In spring and summer a dull green is very good. Certain grays and browns harmonize with natural objects. The vision of most birds is far superior to our own or that of mammals; it is nearly, if not absolutely, perfect. Therefore it is necessary, in approaching shy birds, such as water- fowl or Hawks, to use, as cover, trees, shrubs, or grasses. Often one can advance only on hands and knees, or crawl prone like the serpent. Frequently I have approached wild fowl by crawling in the paths made by raccoons, hares, opossums, and other animals under grasses and low shrubbery. At other times I have been obliged to creep or wriggle through short grass, in mud and water, to reach some desired point of observation. In such cases, when within sight of the birds a screen of vegetation must be kept always before the face, or the birds will take alarm and be oflf at once. Birds so wild that they will not allow a man on foot to come within a half a mile may be approached noiselessly in this way within twenty or thirty yards, but the labor and discomfort are great. When nearing shy birds in this manner, keep under cover and do not raise the head. If it becomes necessar>' to take an observation, the head must be raised but little, and both raised and lowered so slowly that the motion will be imperceptible. Always approach against the wind, if possible, for the birds are then less likely to hear you. Do not allow the sun to strike on any metallic or glass object, for the reflection or flash will give the alarm. Many people will not take such pains in approaching birds. Others cannot, but must either decoy the birds within reach, watch them with long range glasses from wooded shores, or get up to them in less difficult and more conventional ways. Such people may see shy birds sometimes at rather close quarters by driving slowly along the country roads with a horse and carriage. The extra elevation given the observer by the vehicle increases his visual possibilities, and the birds have learned not to be suspicious of such an equipage on the road. Birds sometimes may be approached on horseback better than on foot. Gunners sometimes employ grazing cattle as moving shields, behind which they near the game unnoticed. When approaching shy birds on foot in the open, a zigzag, circular, or sidelong course may bring you much nearer than will a direct forward movement. It is well to avoid the MR. FINLEY (ahead) AND MR. BOHLMAN CALL ON THE MURRES [xl OUT- DOOR I!IRO STL'in' xi appearance of stealth, and seem not to notice your bird. Make no quick movements, and do not hurr\'. Most birds meet violent deaths, and they must be constantly on the watch for their enemies. They are accustomed to flee for their lives from quick-moving creatures. Shy water birds and marsh birds sometimes may be approached by the skilful use of a canoe. Let the canoe drift slowly along the marshy margin of a river, and watch the reeds and rushes closely. In this way Rails, Coots, Gallinules, and even Sandpij^ers are seen at close range. I have gotten very near resting flocks of shore birds by sitting or lying motionless in an Indian canoe, and drifting down upon them. The canoe may be used to advantage on a river not only in watching Bitterns, Rails, and other marsh birds, but also in going close to the smaller land birds in trees and bushes on the bank. For this pur- pose the canoe is much superior to the rowboat. It is noiseless, and the paddler is always facing ahead. Many birds may be seen at close range by working a sail-boat up or down a river before a light, fair breeze. A small boat covered with bushes, and sculled or allowed to drift down on birds sometimes is useful. A fast-sailing boat is one of the best devices for api:)roaching swimming birds on a windy day. Such a boat, manoeuvred skilfully, will be upon the birds before they are aware of its nearness. During a squall I once drove a sloop so near a Merganser that the bird rose on the next sea as we swept past. There is an advantage in sailing down wind, as the bird must rise against the wind, and may come quite near, giving a good view, first of the breast and then of the back, as it turns away. The noisy naphtha launch is the abomination of the bird student. It has driven most of the water-fowl from our eastern rivers. When birds have young in the nest they usually are less shy than at other times, forgetting their regard for their own safety in their solicitude for the welfare of their off- spring. For this reason, if for no other, the bird student should strive to find the nesting sites. A word of caution is necessary here, however. Those who have found and watched bird's nests often complain that something usually happens to the eggs or the young birds. There are creatures always on the watch for an opportunity to rob birds' nests. The fox sometimes follows a man-track. Perhaps he has learned that the path of a man in the woods often leads to food. Too often the man-trail leads to wounded or dead birds and animals; the remains of a lunch may reward the fox. Sometimes fish heads and other offal are thrown around the camping place. So Reynard cunningly follows. Those who closely examine the nests of birds in trees or shrubbery are likely to be watched unawares by the astute and cautious Crow, the thieving Jay, the mischievous squirrel, or the bloodthirsty weasel. I have learned by sad experience that a close or frequent examination of a bird's nest in the woods only serves to call the attention of the bird's enemies. I have seen both Jay and squirrel following a man through the woods, keeping well hidden from his sight. If you approach a nest containing young, the cries of the parent bird may apprise all the wood folk of its location. Therefore, watch the birds with a glass, and do not go to the nest. Those who carelessly approach the nests of Herons or water-birds that breed in colonies are likely to drive the old birds away, and thus expose the eggs and young to the attacks of Crows, for Crows are quick to seize such opportunities. When watching a nest, approach it with caution, and observe it from such a distance that neither young nor old will be much disturbed by your presence. Many interesting habits may be seen in this way, if a good glass is used. He who, unable to go far afield, waits and watches for birds in some secluded spot, or imitates their notes and so calls them to him, may learn more of their ways than will the most active pedestrian. The country dweller may entice birds to the homestead by planting fruit-bearing trees, shrubs, vines, and other plants that will supply them with food. Even the urbanite possibly may attract a few Chickadees or Nuthatches in winter by putting out suet on trees; but other means are required to bring birds about the student in the field. You may facilitate your winter bird study by scattering millet seed in suitable spots along your walks, or by hanging bones and suet in favorably situated trees, which you can visit xn BIRDS OF AMERICA now and then. In spring or fall small grain will attract Thrashers, Blackbirds, Bob- whites, and Crows. Chestnuts and corn scattered about in the fall or early winter will gather all the Blue Jays in the countryside. In summer, if the person is carefully concealed, some of the shyest birds may be brought near by mimicking their notes. Many bird notes may be imitated by the voice. It is difficult for most birds to understand the meaning of a silent human figure lying prone and half concealed. While so reclining I have been closely approached by Eagles and Vultures. Birds that recognize at once the upright figure of a man, and flee from it at sight, sometimes will manifest no fear of the same man stretched on the ground, and maj' even be curious enough to approach him. A concealed hunter sometimes will attract wild- fowl toward the shore by waving a rag on the end of a stick, or by using a small dog trained to gambol in the grass. There are easier and pleasanter ways, however, of attracting the shy birds of the woods. All wood birds, both shy and rare, may be out-generaled by the quiet sitter. They seem to wonder what manner of thing this is that looks so like a man, but neither smokes nor swears, talks, laughs, nor tramps about. Slowly they draw near and peer at the curiosity, and finally they apparently conclude it to be harmless, and go about their usual avocations. There is one great drawback, however, to this method. In summer our woods are infested with mosquitoes, as well as gnats •«»vf-ir-\ --»«_ X ^ -m ^"'^ Pi-^es. A pair of light leather gloves, a ,^[^^ \ > \4*L "^VW. ^tL "^^ °^ yei\, of a mesh smaller than ordinary y \ .Jim-'m^,.^ \ .» *«- ••A^^~^»iW\ \ mosquito netting, to wear over the hat and head, and a light blanket or wrap which can be carried in a shawl-strap, will enable one to keep quiet and yet defy the trouble- some insects. A light camp-stool also is useful. One who desires to camp in the summer will need a different outfit. For more than twenty years I have used a small A tent, made of brown duck, with a flap to tuck under the blankets. It is seven feet long, four feet wide, and three feet high. A small line is sewed along the top, which may be tied at each end to a tree or stake, to support the tent. Eight loops of heavy twine are staked down with forked sticks, to hold out the sides. The ends are made of coarse cheese cloth, or fine netting, and the lower edges are provided with flaps to tuck under the blankets. A rubber blanket and a single light woolen one, with a cotton bag, to be filled nightly with moss or grass for a pillow complete the outfit, which may all be rolled up and carried by a strap handle or packed above a knapsack. The birds soon become accustomed to this tent, and even will alight upon it. For several evenings it was the favorite perch of a Screech Owl. From it I have watched the shore birds and seals on barren islands. In it I narrowly escaped being run over by two deer. The panther has circled around it, and once a wildcat actually walked on it, standing on my breast until I awoke. From such a tent, or from a screen of netting, you may watch the Ruffed Grouse or Partridge and her callow brood. You may camp in a heronry, and see the old birds come and go and feed their I Photu by lixin: Fiuluy WILLIAM L. FINLEY MAKING FRIENDS WITH A DESERT SPARROW IN ARIZONA en u 72 O 3 o o w o t; ■-1 08 ^ o < a H S, H O 2 «' w *^ H o O < o CO H W [xiii) XIV BIRDS OF AMERICA young. I have camped on a small, dry mud bank in a great swamp, with no other dry land above water for miles around, being entertained by the nightly concerts of mosquitoes, Ducks, Herons, frogs, and alligators, without the least discomfort or inconvenience. There are shelters in which one may remain concealed, varying in construction from the log camp of the sportsman to the bough camp of the Indian, or the " hide " or " blind " of the gunner. The umbrella blind used by bird photographers is an excellent device for watching birds, if set up in the shade. In full sunlight it is about as comfortable as a Turkish bath. If the birds to be watched are very wary it is best to set up the blind and leave it for several hours, that they may become accustomed to it. Then the observer should be accom- panied by one or more persons when he goes to conceal himself within it. When his com- panions leave it will allay the birds' suspicions and curiosity may impel them to close approach. Wooden decoys used in connection with " blinds ", and bird-calls will enable a bird student HERBERT K. JOB AT BLIND ON THE LOUISIANA RESERVATION Here he secured wonderful films and pictures of Blue Geese within a few feet to lure most shore birds as near to him as they will come to the gunner. A skilfully con- structed blind placed on or near a long sand bar or point of the shore, and a few lumps of mud or turf judiciously distributed on the point, may enable one to get a good view of sev- eral species of wild-fowl. Apparently the flying birds at a distance mistake the clods for some of their number, and come on intending to alight. If wooden decoys were put out, the Ducks might discover their mistake and become suspicious; but on finding the objects to be mere clods, they sometimes will alight. The best decoys are live birds anchored so that they can swim about. Sometimes a single Grebe or Duck in a small pond will attract a flock of several species. Many game birds and water-fowl can be readily baited; but this is a method for those owning estates where birds can be protected, and should not be attempted by any bird student who would assemble the birds thus only to leave them to the tender mercies of the pot-hunter. Those who wish to lure the sea birds may have some success with Gulls by putting out fish or offal upon some beach or bar, near a blind; but Gulls may be seen anywhere about the harbors of cities where they are not molested. To attract the birds of the ocean, how- ever, one must go several miles to sea, where by throwing overboard cod livers, or some similar food, several species may be lured near the boat. ORDER OF GALLINACIOUS BIRDS Order O'atlinw ^OUND-DWELLING birds constitute this order. They are fowl-Hke in form and appearance: the bill is stout, convex, and short; the legs are stout and moderately long; the front toes webbed and the hind toe elevated; the wings are short, rounded, arched, and strong ; the tail varies in length in the different species; the head is small; and the body heavy. Birds of this order are polygamous. The eggs are numerous and large. The young are covered with down when hatched and are able to run about very soon after leaving the shell. Gallinaceous Birds obtain their food almost entirely from the ground, and in getting it they indulge in a great deal of scratching of the soil. The flesh of most species is edible and is generally light-colored. Representatives of the order are found on every continent, but only the one suborder Phasiani has representatives (four families) of regular occurrence in the United States and Canada. BOB-WHITES AND QUAILS Order Galliiicc ; suborder Phasiani; family Odontophorida; jHE true Quails and Partridges are Old World birds and their American repre- sentatives are the Bob-whites and Quails. There are about seventy species in the western hemisphere, most of which are confined to the tropics and only seven of which are found north of the southern border of the United States. These birds are rather small in size with heads completely feathered and sometimes crested; the nostrils covered with a naked scale; the legs stout and moderately long ; the tarsi and toes naked ; the front toes webbed at the base, the hind toe raised and rather small; the wings short, rounded, arched, and strong; the tail var>-ing from less than one-half to about four-fifths the length of the wing; and the body heavy. A great variation in plumage is shown between the members of this family. The eggs of the Partridges are numerous and large and the young when hatched are covered with down and are able to care for themselves. The Quails of the United States, because of their interesting habits and marvelous diversity of form and color, are a notably attractive group. All are handsome birds, but the most striking and beautiful species live in the Southwest and on the Pacific coast. Only one occurs in the Eastern States. The others are widely distributed from Texas to Cali- fornia and Oregon. Their range was, and still is, continuous along the entire southern border of the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific; but there is an irregular belt along the northern border and a large area in the interior, comprising the Great Plains, the northern three-fourths of the Great Basin, and the Rock}' Mountains, in which they appear to have been originally wanting. With few exceptions our Quails welcome the extension of agriculture, and the added food supply in farmed areas results in an increase of their numbers. This is equally true of the Bob-white of the East and of some of the desert species of the West. So fully does the Bob-white appreciate the advantages of the farm that its range has increased with the exten- sion of the cultivated area, especially west of the Mississippi. Their cheerful disposition, their beaut}', and their value as food usually win for the Quails a welcome to any farm. But, as the investigations of the Biological Survey show, these birds, with rare exceptions, not only are harmless, but usually are very useful to agri- culture. This is particularly true of the Bob-white, which constantly feeds on injurious weed seeds and insects, and thus renders valuable service to the farmer. In return for this good service it is but fair that these birds should be treated with friendly care and interest. [ I] BIRDS OF AMERICA BOB-WHITE Colinus virginianus virginianus (Linncrus) A. O. U. Number 289 See Color Plate 40 Other Names. — Quail; Bob-white Quail; Partridge; Virginia Partridge. General Description. — Length, 10 inches. Plumage above, chestnut, black, ashy, and tawny, mixed ; below, different shades of brown with black marks. Feathers of crown, somewhat erectile. Found in open field. Color. — Adult Male: Forehead, lores, line over eye extending to back of head, chin, and throat, white; the line from gape, below eye, and side of head deep dusky; crown, back of head, neck all around, and upper parts of breast, reddish-brown ; upper parts, a mi.xture of chestnut, black, ashy, and tawny, this last color edging feathers of shoulder and inner secondaries, forming a continuous line when wing is closed ; under parts, white tinged with warm brown on chest, each feather with several narrow V-shaped spots of black, sides of body, flank, and wing-coverts, brownish-red, abdomen marked more or less with double crescentic black bars ; upper part of breast outlining white throat, deep dusky brown ; primaries, brown ; tail, ash ; bill, dusky horn almost black; iris, deep brown. Adult Female: Differs from male in having the throat buff instead of white, less black on breast and coloration less intense, the reddish tints of male being supplanted by a dull pinkish hue; black crescents of under parts, narrower; bill, horn color. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: On the ground under old rail fences, sheltered by a thick growth of grass or small bushes, or at the foot of stumps; constructed of dry grasses, leaves, or weed stalks. Eggs: 12 to 18, pure white. Distribution. — • Eastern North America from South Dakota, southern Minnesota, southern Ontario, and southwestern Maine south to eastern and northern Texas, the Gulf coast, and northern Florida west to eastern Colorado ; introduced in central Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, California, Oregon, and Wash- ington. The call of Bob-white is one of the cheeriest sounds in nature. Nearby, it commands atten- tion ; distant, it harmonizes with other sotinds of summer, yet never palls upon the ear. It names the bird. Northerners call him Quail ; South- erners. Partridge ; but he has named himself r,,urtrsy i.f lliitint; I'ulj. Co. BOB- WHITE She was undisturbed by the camera and ornithologists have decided that he is the prior authority. His cry is interrogatory. It is pleasing, heartening, delightful. Farmers trans- late it as more zvet, saying that it foretells rain. And this prophecy is always welcome in the drouth of summer. Everything about the bird is so attractive that men have always loved him — and hunted him. Perhaps there is no other wild bird to which the American people are more indebted. He de- lights in the farm ; is the friend and companion of man ; a destroyer of weeds and pernicious insects ; a close-lying, swift-flying game bird ; and, last as well as least, is the joy of the epicure. From the standpoint of the greatest good to the greatest number he is supreme ; his wide range and easy accessibility make him always immedi- ately available. He is the bird for field trials where staunch dogs show their training. Annti- ally each autumn something like 400,000 sports- men go out from the cities in this country to hunt Bob-white. In many cases the rental of the privilege of shooting more than pays the taxes on the farm. Thus Bob-white pays indirectly inost of the taxes in many school districts and so settles for the education of the children on the farms. After the spring rains, when the warm south winds give promise of coming summer, the birds are mating and the call of the " Quail " is heard on all sicfes. They are good-natured, afTectionate birds, but now during the rivalries of the mating season the males become quarrelsome and some- times fight fiercely. The mating over, the happy ]iairs settle down, each to its allotted place. Rarely two females use the same nest and there is some indication of polygamy in such cases. The male, however, is very attentive to his mate, is a good provider, and has been known to assume the entire charge of the brood upon the death of the female, brooding, feeding, and protecting them at all times like the fondest mother. BOB-WHITES AND QUAILS '1"1k' y<)un,t( arc lialclu'd aflcr alxuU iwciUy- four days of incubation. They all pop out of the shell at about the same time and are ready to leave the nest as soon as their natal down is dry. A farmer in mowing one day overran a nest as the young were hatching. He was astonished to see the little ones, just from the siicll. run away and hide in the grass. Thus nature pro- vides for their safety. When surprised by a sudden intruder the mother tries to lead him away by many wiles, while the tiny chicks squat close to the ground and remain invisible until danger has passed. As the young grow they keep together, never going back to the nest but wandering about in the vicinity. They frequent weedy gardens, potato fields, grain and stubble fields, bushy pastures and stump lots as well as the edges of woods. The ordinary, more or less neglected farm is a paradise for them. The birds of a bevy are very fond of each other and always keep together if possible. When scattered by the common enemy they soon commence their plaintive two-sy!lablcd call and are never satisfied until they are reunited, when they converse together using a great variety of tender low notes. They sleep side by side in a circular group on the ground, heads out, ready to burst away like a " feathered bombshell " if surprised by the enemy. When hunted tlicy often take refuge in almost impenetrable thickets and swamps. They have learned by necessity the art of concealment. A full-plumaged male will flatten himself and disapi)ear on ground almost as open as a well kept lawn, and the full bevj' needs only a few overhanging fern fronds or a leafy spray to render their concealment perfect. At need. Bob-white can disappear in the open before one's very eyes and reappear again from the same spot as if he had for the time being put on the cloak of invisibility. Some- times he appears to give no scent and the dogs cannot find him. There is some evidence of occasional south- ward migration for comparatively short dis- tances. These occur at the approach of winter. Severe northern winters sometimes almost ex- terminate the bevies. Resting on the ground as they do at night, a heavy snowstorm may cover them. If, as sometimes occurs, rain follows the snow and is succeeded by freezing weather a crust is formed that imprisons the poor birds by thousands and starvation follows. Continued deep snows alone may decimate the species by covering deeply their food and the gravel so necessary to their digestion. Those who feed Bob-white in winter always should include coarse sand or grit with the grain. Vol. II— 2 Hard winters and an increasing number of gunners have reduced greatly the numbers of this bird in the northern parts of its range, but we are beginning to learn how to propagate it artificially. In the coming years it may be quite possible to breed the species in unlimited num- bers. This gives hojic for its future in all jiarts of its range. Ei3W,\kd IIowk Foubusii. The Bob-white Quail is fond of farming regions, especially where wheat and the other small grains are cultivated. It thrives in the South on cow-pea;; and many other foods which are plentiful. It is quite as important to see that the foods the birds require at difTercnt seasons Photo by R. W. Sliarel-it TEXAS BOB-WHITE (j nat. size) Except for paler coloration and smaller size, it is like the common Bob-white of the year are plentiful, and that they have proper covers and protection, as it is to see that their enemies are controlled. Good shooting de- pends on a proper attention being given to all of these matters. Briers, both berry and flower briers, the blackberry, the wild rose, and many- others, make safe and attractive covers and they also furnish much food. The yotmg Quails live largely on insects found in the fields and woods. Later they eat many berries and the seeds of plants, including weeds. In the fall they glean the stubbles for the grain lost at the harvest and in winter they often live on stmiac, wild rose hips and other plants which are seen above the snow. At this season many birds will perish imless food be supplied. A little corn, served with grit at established feeding places will save hundreds of birds during a severe winter. BIRDS OF AMERICA The Florida Bob-white {Coliiius v'lrginianns floridaiius), a smaller and darker form of the better known common Bob-white, is found in the peninsula of Florida except in the extreme northern part. The Texas, or Texan, Bob-white {CoUniis vircjUuanus texanus) is a paler variety and oc- curs from the southeastern corner of New- Mexico to southern Texas and south into north- ern Mexico. Photographs by H. K. Job Nest and brood BOB-WHITES Ci-mrtfsy L't Uutmg Publishing Co. Seven weeks old Other Names. — Arizona Bob-white Ridgway's Colin ; Ridgway's Quail. General Description. — Length. lo inches. Pkunage above, reddish-brown, brown, black, and gray, mixed; below, orange-chestnut. Color. — Adult Male: Forehead, sides of head and neck, black with or without a white line over eye ; crozvn, hind head, and nape, mixed black, zfhitc, and pale broii'n ; hindneck and shoulders, grayish-reddish- brown ; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts, minutely spotted with blackish, brown, and grayish-white; wing- coverts, tawny, each feather barred with blackish, edged and tipped with dull white; primaries, dusky-brown, edged with white, inner web scalloped with the same color; secondaries, dusky barred and speckled with pale raw umber and cream ; the inner secondaries and shoulder-feathers, broadly edged with yellowish white; tail, above bluish-ash finely speckled and waved with MASKED BOB-WHITE Colinus ridgwayi Brczvstcr A. O. U. X umber 291 Hooded Quail ; whitish, below gray lightly and irregularly barred and waved with grayish-white ; under parts, orange chest- imt usually immaculate except on flanks where feathers are usually tipped with an oval white spot behind a subterminal black bar ; lower tail-coverts with a wedge- shaped black spot bordered with whitish; bill, black; feet, horn color; iris, brown. Adult Female; Fore- head, lores, a broad stripe over and behind eye. chin, and throat, pale warm buffy ; crown, sides of head (narrowly), neck, and upper parts in general, variegated with gray, brown, and tawny; beneath, dull pinkish buff lightly crossed with brown crescentic marks, these- absent on flanks which are more brownish-bufif. Nest and Eggs. — Nest ; A shallow excavation on the ground under the shelter of grass or bushes. Kc.cs : .Xs far as known, 6, white, unmarked. Distribution. — Middle part of southern border of Arizona south to central-northern Sonora. The plumage of the Masked Bob-white is strikingly different from that of his eastern cousin. He is a handsome little chap in his bright chestnut-colored waistcoat, which looks red in the sunlight, and like most of his tribe he seems to be very well aware of the fact. Wherefore he announces himself with the same cheerful and confident tones which have given him and his relatives their common name. One observer notes that toward evening the short in- troductory note, which is usually subdued, is omitted altogether. When the covey is scattered, especially in the evening, they are assembled by means of a peculiarly soft and rather plaintive two-note call, resembling the syllables hoo-ive. From much of their normal range in the South- west these attractive and interesting little birds have been driven by advancing agriculture and the accompanying man with a gun, intent upon destroying every living thing for food or for " sport." In the vicinity of Tucson, Arizona, not so very many years ago, the birds were so plenti- ful, tame, and persistent in their habit of keep- ing closely bunched in coveys of fifteen or twenty, that it was no uncommon thing to kill five or six at a single shot — on the ground, of course. And yet many people wonder about the disappearance of wild life ! George GLAonEN. BOB-WHITES AND QUAILS MOUNTAIN QUAIL Oreortyx picta picta (Douijlas) A. O, I'. Other Names. — Plumed PartriflKC : Mountain Par- irid^i-. General Description. — LcuKtli. 12 inches. Pluiiiai^e above, olive-brown ; below, grayish-brown and chestnut. A crest of two straight feathers about two inches long. Color. — Adults : The lores and the extreme chin, whitish; patch below eye and extending a short dis- tance behind, and throat, orange-chestnut bordered on top by black and behind by whitish space; rest of front parts of body, grayish-brown more tinged with olive or pale rufous above; back, wings, and tail, plain olive-brown ; the inner secondaries and shoulders bordered with buff or tawny forming a conspicuous lengthwise streak when wings are folded ; primaries .XuniljLT 202 and tail, brownish, the latter finely flecked with the color of the back; abdomen, rich chestnut, the sides and flanks with broad bands of black and rufous ; center of lower abdomen and thighs, whitish or i)ale chest- nut; under tail-coverts, black streaked with chestnut; crest, black: bill, dusky with paler base; feet and iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Placed on the ground under tlie shelter of tufts of weeds, grass, or small bushes. Egus : 6 to I J, sometimes 18 or 20, creamy white, deposited on a bed of dead leaves or grass. Distribution. — Humid districts of the Pacific coast from soutliwustern Washington south to Monterey County, California; introduced on Vancouver Island. The inaiiiUain clinilicr in Calif urnia may now and then hear a hi,s,'h, clear, sweet, plaintive call quit quit quit quccah from the slo])c above him and may even catch a g]im])se of a handsome bluish-plumed bird disappearing into the chap- paral. A near view shows it to be the elegant Mountain Quail, the largest and in some ways the finest of its tribe. In California it seems to prefer the brush, chapparal, or timber to the open country, and the inountains to the valleys or plains, but in Oregon and Washington, where the climate is cooler, it seeks lower levels and is quite common in some of the coast valleys of southern Oregon, while in Washington it can exist even on the plains. The systematists have divided it into three sttb- species : the Mountain Quail of the humid coast region south to Monterey County, California, which has been introdttced into western ^^'ash- ington and Vancouver Island; the Plumed Quail {Oreortyx picta plumifcra) of the semi-arid re- gions from Oregon south to Inyo and Ventura cotinties, California, and east to the edge of Nevada; and the San Pedro Quail {Oreortyx picta confinis) of the -San Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains in southern California and the San Pedro Martir Mountains in Lower Cali- fornia. The distinctions between these races re- late mainly to coloration and tlie differences are not great. Their habits are much alike. The male has a cheery call somewhat like the last note of the common call of Bob-white. Any boy can w-histle it. .\lso he has a crowing note which has been compared to that of a young bantam cock. \Mien the flock is startled its mem- bers emit a chuckling sound slightly similar to lliat which comes at such times from a bevy of eastern birds, but here the resemblance ceases. The Motintain Quail rarely raises more than one brood in a season but its broods are large and occasionally eighteen or twenty eggs have been found in a nest. The tiny, downy chicks when first hatched are striped down the back with brown and yellow, streaked on each side of the head and speckled over the body with brown and black. After the first few days the little plumelets on the head begin to develop, forming a slight top-knot. The chicks are full of vitality, very active, and so easily frightened at the first alarm that they will scatter like a charge of shot and hide in an instant. When the young arc small the female sometimes emits a scold- ing note somewhat similar to that of a guinea hen. As they grow toward maturity they fre- quent the chapparal, and are quite at home in the thickets. When scattered they are called to- gether again by a note that Edwin Sandys likens to the cry of a young Wild Turkey. This Partridge loves the high mountain glens and their foaming streams. It rarely gathers in large packs as does the \'alley Quail but the members of a single brood, or perhaps two, asso- ciate together. In Oregon it thrives on bushy hillsides along the smaller streams. When pur- sued it is more likely to take to its legs than to its wings and to lead the hunter an arduous chase, by running until beyond gunshot and then flying fast and far. As winter comes on the flocks start on foot down the mountain trails and roads which lead into the valleys. In the spring they return to the highlands in the same way, hut in mild winters there seems to be little, C^airtcs^y of American Museum of Natural History CALIFORNIA VALLEY QUAIL Beautiful, lively, and loquacious [6] BOB-WHITES AND QUAILS if any, iiiigr;Uioii. This bird cannol adapt itself to civilization as well as the Valley yuail hut disiippcars before the advance of seltlenient and should be assiduously protected because of its beauty and utility. Edward Howe Forbusii. The food of the Mountain Quail of the arid regions has been studied in the laboratory of the United States Biological Survey. The stomachs examined, IweiUy-three in number, were collected in California. The food consisted of animal matter 3 per cent., and vegelalile matter 97 per cent. The vegetable food consisted of grain, 18.20 per cent. ; seeds, practically all of weeds or other worthless plants, 46.61 per cent. ; fruit, 8. II per cent.; and miscellaneous vegetable mat- ter, 24.08 per cent. The grain included uheat, corn, barley, and oats. (Judd.) SCALED QUAIL Callipepla squamata squamata ( Vigors) A. (), V. Nuinlier 29J Other Names. — Blue Quail ; Cotton Top. Description. — Length, 95/. inches. Crest short, not entirely distinct from crown-feathers. General color, fine bhiish-ash, more bluish on throat and neck, whiter on abdomen which is tinged with brown centrally; head and the full broad crest of soft blended brown feathers tipped with pure white; feathers of neck all around, upper breast, and upper back, sharply edged with crescentic lines of black; exposed surface of wing tinged with light ocher brown, the inner second- aries strongly edged with butT, forming a lengthwise stripe; side feathers, bluish-ash, each feather with a white stripe bordered on both sides with brown ; rest of under parts, a blending of rusty or pale brown with elongated arrowhead or heart-shaped darker spots ; bill, dusky ; legs, brownish-horn ; iris, dark brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A slight hollow scooped out of the sand under the protection of a clump of weeds or grass ; lined with a few leaves or coarse grasses. Eccs : 8 to 16, creamy or pale buflfy-white, minutely speckled with a darker shade of buff or shades of brown, distributed regularly over entire surface. Distribution. — From central Arizona to western Te.xas, north to southern Colorado and over most of the Panhandle of Texas, cast nearly to central Texas, and south to the valley of Mexico. The Scaled Quail and the Chestnut-bellied Scaled Quail ( Callipepla squamata castanogas- tris ) are two excellent wild food birds, identi- cal in appearance save that the last named has a chestnut patch on the belly. The birds are found in the Rio Grande valley, Texas, and northern Mexico; the first named form is found also in New Mexico, southern Arizona and the valley of Mexico. Like the other western birds, they are runners. An observer who once had a flock in his room for a time says : " The speed they made when they started on a course around the room against the wall was most remarkable. I wotdd have backed them against the fastest Gambels or Valley Quails that ever ran on a desert or prairie." The countrv inhabited often is full of thorns which jjrevcnt the use of dogs and render the shooting comparatively uninter- esting. Natural foods undoubtedly are suffi- ciently plentiful in most parts of their range, since the birds once were very plentiful. The control of their enemies would seem to be all that is necessary to perpetuate these birds. Two or three broods are reared in a season, the Photo by R. W. Shufelrtt SCALED QUAIL Adult male in breeding plumage tfrom life) 8 BIRDS OF AMERICA cock assisting in the care of the young but not in incubation. Although the Scaled Quail is a desert species, it comes into more or less direct relation with agriculture, sometimes feeding u]ion cultivated land and about farm buildings. Half of its food consists of the seeds of weeds. It is highly in- sectivorous, fully one-fourth of its food con- sisting of insects. The dryness of its food makes this Quail dependent on water, and the sight of a number of them is a sure indication of a nearby supply of water. CALIFORNIA QUAIL Lophortyx californica californica (Shazv) A. O. U. Number 294 Other Names. — Valley Quail ; Top-knot Quail ; California Partridge; Helmet Quail. General Description. — Length, ii inches. Males are asliy-brown above, and slaty-blue and tawny below with chestnut patch ; females are ashy-brown above and be- low. Both se.xes have the head adorned with a glossy black crest, narrow at the base and gradually widening into gracefully recurving plumes. Color. — Adult Male: General color of plumage of upper parts, deep ashy brozvn with a strong olive tinge, the feathers of nape and neck black-edged and centered with fine white dots between; front half of crown, brownish-yellow; rear portion and back of head, light brown ; forehead, whitish with fine black lines ; a white stripe from above eye along upper side of head to nape, bordered above by a narrow black stripe which e-xtends across to front of crown; a black stripe from back of eye running toward neck and circling across upper breast ; chin and throat, black bounded behind by another white stripe circling backward and around front of breast cutting off the black of throat; fore- breast, deep slaty-blue ; rest of under parts, tawny with a lariir area of rich ehestiiut on ahitoiiieii. wliere marked with circular edgings of jet black except in center of chestnut patch; inner secondaries and shoulder-feathers, broadly marked with brownish-orange ; sides and flanks, like color of back with broad sharp longitudinal white stripes; under tail-coverts, tawny, each feather with a wedge-shaped spot of blackish-brown ; bill, dusky horn ; legs, brownish-horn ; iris, deep brown. Adult Fe.male: Head and neck all around and breast, plain olive-gray without any markings on head ; lower parts, without the chestnut and warm colors of the male but scaled like his, sides with white streaks ; crest very much shorter. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A slight hollow lined with grass, under brush heaps, beside a rock, bushes, old fences, or other shelters, sometimes in gardens or even in "stolen" chicken nests. Eggs: 12 to 16, creamy, beautifully marked with spots and blotches of old gold, sometimes pale brown and chestnut over entire sur- face. Distribution. — Humid districts of Pacific coast region from southwestern Oregon south to Monterey County, California; introduced into Vancouver Island, Washington, and Colorado. The California Quail — elegant, graceful, and lovely — is one of the liveliest of all American game birds. During daylight it is in motion most of the time, and, even when settled quietly on stump or fence, its head or eyes are constantly moving that it may catch the first glimpse of any of its many enemies. Although it often seems tame and confiding during the close season or where not hunted, it leads the hunter a merry chase after the shooting season begins, and its habits of sprinting and long-distance running are likely to baffle any but well-trained dogs. It is knowti commonly in California as the Valley Quail, to distinguish it from the Mountain Quail of the higher lands ; but ornithologists now recognize two subspecies, the California Quail and the Valley Quail ( Lophortyx californica I'aUicola) both entirely distinct from the Moun- tain Quail. The first is a bird of the humid coast region and has been introduced into Wash- ington. The second, which differs only slightly from the first, is chiefly a bird of the drier or sub-arid regions of the interior, from the Kla- math Lake region in Oregon south to Cape San Lucas and east to Nevada, but it is not an inhabi- tant of the more eastern desert region where its place is taken by Gambel's Quail. The species represented by the two subspecies lives in the valleys and on the foothills in California from near sea level to perhaps a mile above it. Our little Quail is not only beautiful and lively, it is loquacious also. No bird perhaps has a more varied and pleasing language for if there is such a thing as bird-talk this bird surely is an accomplished conversationalist. The hunter soon learns to know the meaning of some of its notes. There is a common scolding call, resem- bling a little the crowing of a cock, something like ka-ka-kao. Some assert that the bird is merely swearing in Spanish. Caralw! Its calls BOB- WHITES AND QUAILS Yar\'. ( )nc has bi-i'ii n-iuk-rt-d kuk-kiik-hii m kiick-kuck-ke; but coo-cod-coo with the accent strongly on the second syllable, which is ])itche(l hii^her than the others, represents very well the call most commonly heard. Hunters translate its calls into various phrases, which it seems to imitate, such as " Cut it out," " Cut me too," " Oh go way," etc. ; but these imaginative ren- ditions hardly hint at the expressive powers of the Quail's language, which may be heard at its best when the young and old are in flocks to- gether. In s]iring. while the female sits on the nest, the male is attentive and watchful. His cry as he occupies some elevated perch nearby on stump, rock, or fence shows that he is on guard. The little chicks exhibit their inherited liveliness soon after they leave the e^<^. and have been seen to run awav and hide from sudden danger with ])ieces of their natal shell still sticking to their liacks. They are little striped, downy, bobby things with trifling top-knots. As they grow older the families gather tuuil in early fall they as- semble in " packs," usually not far from some s])ring or other water, where they can drink and bathe. It is believed that they post sentinels after the fashion of Crows, especially when the flock is feeding or dusting near a road or passing over rather open ground where cover is insuffi- cient or scattered. One bird then takes an elevated position and remains on watch until re- lieved by another. The sentinel is frequently changed. In the flocking season a Quail perched in full view is a sign that the flock is near at hand. The little comjjany is easily startled ; a sudden motion, a falling leaf, the snapping of a twig or the rustling caused by a dog is enough to set them scurrying. When suddenly alarmed bv the rush of man or beast coming rudelv upon them they are likely to rise and tly in all direc- tions, but ]jerhaps more often they will skulk and run, fast and far. When the flock is alarmed, its members give the d.uiger sign.-d, a loud whis|)ering sound such as may be produced by blowing the breath out suddenly between the teeth. Then begins a rajjid extended scoot through the chai)])aral or underbrush. This Quail has decreased nuich in mnnbers since the latter part of the last century. Where " packs " of thousands once lived, now only hundreds can be found. It has been destroyed in part for the market and in i)art by the farmers, for although it is a feeder on insect CALIFORNIA QUAIL pests it eats grain and it long ago learned the virtues of grape juice and therefore earned the hostility of certain grape growers and paid dearly for its luxurious tastes. Edw.\rd Howe Forbush. GAMBEL'S QUAIL Lophortyx gambeli Gambcl \. <>, V. Xumher 295 Other Names. — Arizona Quail : riainhd's X'allcv Quail. General Description. — Length. lo inches. Color above, bluish-ash; below, bluish-ash and white. Crest of soft recurved feathers. Color. — Adult Male : Upper parts, plain bluish- gray with neck feathers with dark shaft lines: crest, black ; crown, reddish-brown : forehead, black streaked with white ; a black strife in front of chestnut crov.R()L'SE RUFFED GROUSE Bonasa umbellus umbellus ( LiinKcus) A. O. U. NiimluT .joo Sec Color I'l.itc 41 Other Names. — Grouse; Shouldcr-knot Grouse; r'artridge : Dnmiminj; Grouse: Kirch PartrirlRe ; IMu-asaiit ; Dniuiniiiit; Pheasant; Mountain Pheasant. General Description. — Length. 18 inches. Color above, reddish-lirown. spotted ; below, yellowish, barred with dark. Both crested and ruffed; tail and wings of equal length ; tail with 18 broad, blunt feathers, and somewhat double notched, so that it is nearly half- diamond shape when spread ; tarsus partly feathered in front. Color. — ADULT.S : Lores, cream ; crown, variegated black, brown, and yellow; nape more softly blended with gray and reddish-brown; back and shoulders, cinnamon-rufous, each feather witli a broad yellowish- white center stripe, this stripe mottled on both sides with brownish-black ; lower back, rump, and upper tail- feathers, tawny-brown mixed with gray, speckled with heart-shaped spots of yellowish-white; tail, itarjii hrozi'ii or yrayisU-ash. crossed with six or seven nar- row bands of blackish-brown, the subterminal one much wider, the feathers tipped with whitish; throat, dull ocher; rest of under parts, whitish tinged with pale brown or pale yellow ; the breast, narrowly but boldly crossed with traverse bars of burnt umber or sepia, sides and abdomen with large traverse wedge-shaped spots of dusky and brown, under tail-coverts and thigh- feathers faintly marked or immaculate; rufT. purplish- black ; wing-coverts, a warm brown or cinnamon with a narrow shaft streak of white; secondaries and prima- ries, dusky, the former edged and tipped with yellowish- white, the outside webs of latter with a number of elongated spots of yellowish wliite. YoUNc: Similar to al'ii uy H. K. Job Cuurtcsy uf Uuting Publishing Co. RUPFED GROUSE ON NEST the neighborhood, but patter about day by day, and gather under the mother's wings wherever night overtakes them. She is ready to defend them with her life, if need be, or to entice away any enemy by crying and fluttering in the path like a wounded bird. This ruse often is success- ful with a boy or a dog, but does not deceive Reynard, who quietly retires, lies down to await the mother's return, and, when the chicks rise from their concealment at her call, springs among the frightened brood and marks one for his own. In feeding, the little ones scatter through the woods, searching for insects on the forest floor sides where they wallow and dust their feathers in the manner of a domestic fowl, to free them- selves of para.-^ites. When autumn comes they are nearly full- grown but their numbers have decreased about one-half as they have many enemies. Now they visit the wild apple trees and grape vines or search for beechnuts and acorns among the fallen leaves. About the middle of October they begin to wander about and often are found dead in queer places where they have flown against some obstacle such as a high wire fence or the side of a building. This is the unexplained 20 BIRDS OF AMERICA " crazy season." They are now preparing for winter, laying in stores of fat, growing a long downy covering for body and legs and ]iulting on their snowshoes, which consist of little horny comb-like appendages that grow from the sides of the toes to help support the weight of the body on the snow. Now comes the hunting season, when the bird has need of all its wits. Its many wiles and stratagems are known more or less to the hunter. Commonly upon rising it goes behind a tree trunk or some thick foliage and keeps this between itself and its pursuer. Often it doubles upon its trail, circles, and lies close until the hunter has passed, rising behind him and getting safely away. Sometimes it flies rapidly out of sight but alights high in some tall, thick pine where it remains motionless until the coast is clear, and so, in one way or another, a few birds manage to survive the season and then they face the winter. As the inclement season comes on, they leave the heights and come down into the more sheltered valleys and swamps where they subsist on buds, foliage, twigs, and dried berries until vernal breezes blow and nature calls them again to the mating. Edward Howe Forbush. The RufTed Grouse can be kept plentiful even in closely settled farming regions, provided small woods or thickets be left or are planted, and foods suitable for difi^erent seasons of the year are provided. Young birds are largely in- sectivorous. More than 95 per cent, of the diet of the young Grouse examined by Dr. Judd was insects. Newly hatched chicks eat the most ; as they grow older they eat fruit, and later they feed on mast, grain, and buds. The study of the food habits of the young has not been as ex- tensive as it should be, but it indicates that the chicks eat grasshoppers, cutworms, certain lieetles, ants, parasitic wasps, buffalo tree-hop- pers, spiders, grubs, and caterpillars. Un- doubtedly many small insects and their eggs which are found in the woods and adjacent fields will be added to the list. The beetles seem to be preferred, but Dr. Judd says the Grouse he shot in September, in New Hampshire, were feeding largely on red-legged grasshoppers, which were abundant in the pastures where the birds foraged. The vegetable food consists largely of seeds, fruit, buds and leaves. Mast, including hazel- nuts, beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, are staple foods, the acorns being the largest supply in many regions. Acorns of the scrub oak, scrub chestnut oak, white oak, and red oak are swal- lowed whole. The Ruffed Grouse undoubtedly eats grain and often procures it along woodland roads, where it resorts to dust and to feed on the abundant berries. More than one-fourth of the yearly food of this bird is fruit. Its diet includes the hips of the wild rose, grapes, partridge berries, thorn apples, wild crab apples, cultivated apples, wintergreen berries, bayberries, blueberries, huckleberries, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, cran- berries, sarsaparilla berries, and others, wild and cultivated cherries, plums, haws, sumacs, includ- ing the poison sumac and poison ivy, which are taken with immunity. Sportsmen are well aware of the fondness of this Grouse for wild grapes and apples, and they often find them in places where grapes are plenti- ful and in old fruit orchards, especially on abandoned farms. The wild rose-hips and sumac are excellent winter foods because they can be obtained above the snow. Wild and cultivated sunflowers furnish excellent food, and many other fruits and seeds of varying importance are on the Ruffed Grouse's bill of fare. Birch, poplar, willow, laurel, and other buds are eaten by the Ruffed Grouse, and the budding, practiced for the most part during the winter, enables it to survive the severe winters of the northern States and Canada, when other foods are buried in deep snows. The several species of birch buds are a staple. WILLOW PTARMIGAN Lagopus lagopus lagopus (Linmcus) A. O. U. Number 301 Other Names. — PtarmiRan ; Common Ptarmigan ; Willow Grouse: White Grouse; Snow Grouse. General Description. — Length, 17 inches. In sum- mer males are brownish-rufous above, barred with black, and white below ; females are tawny-brown, above and below, barred and spotted with black. In winter both sexes are white. The feet are completely feathered, the tail has 14 feathers, and the tail-coverts reach to the end of the tail. Color. — Adult Male in Summer: Head, neck, and GROUSE 21 breast, rich chestnut or cinnamon-rufous, top of head spotted with black, chest and neck with bars of the same color; entire upper parts except wings, more brownish-rufous, broadly and closely barred with black; most of the wings and rest of the under parts, white. Adult Female in Summer: Entire plumage except wings, tawny-brown, heavily spotted and barred above, and uniformly barred below with black. Adults IN Wintek; Snowy white; tail-fcalhcrs, black lipped li'ith zchilc: middle pair with tail-coverts which extend to end of tail, white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A mere depression in the ground, lined with leaves, grass, or feathers. Eggs: 7 to 12, varying from pale yellowish to dark chestnut- brown, heavily spotted with rich browns and black. Distribution. — Arctic regions; in America breeds from northern Alaska, northern Banks Land, and cen- tral Greetdand south to eastern Aleutian Islands, central Mackenzie (in the mountains to west-central Alberta), central Keewatin, James Hay, and southern Ungava; south in winter to northern British Columbia, Sas- katchewan valley, Minnesota, Ontario, and Quebec; accidental in Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, Maine, and Massachusetts. The extreme northern portion of the northern hemisphere is the summer home of the Willow Ptarmigan. Here, often well above the tree line on the boundless moss-covered tundra where the ground thaws only to a de[)th of a few feet, the student may seek for this bird. The rich chestnut-brown plumage in no way renders it consi)icuous in summer and in winter when all the region about it is peqjctually white, the Ptarmigan has a coat as white as the snowy wastes it inhabits. From seven to twelve spotted eggs are laid in the simple grass- or feather- lined nest on the ground. One observer states that all the coloring matter can so be washed from a freshly laid egg that only the pale creamy white of the shell is left. The male of many of the Gallinaceous birds, not content with one mate, gathers unlo himself several helpmates. The male Willow Ptarmigan, let us record, is not one of these polygamous individuals. He has only one mate and for her sweet sake he wages furious battles in spring with other covetous blades of the frozen wastes. For her he undergoes punishment and loses many feathers. So frequent and so furious are these battles that apparently few except the strong birds are able to win and be the proud head of a family. Such provision is doubtless wise in a country where the conditions of climate are certainly not ideal for bird-life. During the mat- ing season the male is very noisy and his hoarse calls and hoots may be heard on all sides. The uproar reaches its greatest height between lo P. M. and 2 A. M., this being the period of the twenty-four hours when there is less daylight, and doubtless takes the place of the dawn which birds farther south are fond of making resonant with their songs. The Willow Ptarmigan is migratory and after the breeding season retires southward as far as Sitka in south Alaska, and the central Briti.sh provinces. A few have even been known to wander to the northern edge of the United States. The food of this bird in summer consists of various insects and herbs. In autumn it finds many berries and in winter it appears to subsist almost entirely on tlie buds and terminal twigs of the dwarf alder and willow that flourish in bush-grown gullies of the tundra. Ptarmigans constitute a popular article of diet with the human inhabitants of the Far North. A method at times employed in hunting them is thus described by Mr. E. W. Nelson: " At the Yukon mouth on the evening of ^lay 24, these Ptarmigans were uttering their hoarse notes all about. As we were sitting by the tent my interpreter took my rifle and going off a short distance worked a hump of snow to about the size of one of these birds. Fixing a bunch of dark-brown moss at one end of the snow to rep- resent the bird's head, he set his decoy upon a bare mossy knoll ; then retiring a short distance behind the knoll he began imitating the call of the male until a bird came whirring along, and taking up the gauntlet lit close by its supposed rival and fell victim to the ruse." T. Gilbert Pearson. Allen's Ptarmigan ( Lagopus lagopus allcni) is similar to the Willow Ptarmigan, having the same seasonal variations, but in all plumages the pritnaries are usually mottled with fuscous or have some fuscous along the shaft. It occurs on the rocky barrens of Newfoundland and feeds on seeds and berries. 22 BIRDS OF AMERICA ROCK PTARMIGAN Lagopus rupestris rupestris ( Gniclin) A. O. U. Number 302 Description. — Length, 15 inches. Adults in Sum- mer: Entire plumage with the exception of wings and tail, which are white, brownish-yellow barred with blackish-brown; the lower parts of the male, e.xcept breast and sides, white. Adults in Winter: Pure white, the tail black and a black stripe from the bill to eye and behind it. Immature in First Winter : Simi- lar to adult female in winter. Nest and Eggs. — Nest and location similar to the Willow Ptarmigan. Eggs : 6 to 10, indistinguishable from those of the Willow Ptarmigan. Distribution. — Arctic America; breeds from Mel- ville Island to Melville Peninsula and south on the Barren Grounds from Alaska to Ungava ; also above the limit of trees south to central Yukon ; south in winter to southern Mackenzie and southern Ungava. The habits of the Rock Ptarmigans are much like those of their relative, the Willow Ptarmi- gan, though they are not such prolific breeders. During the nesting season their coloration so closely resembles that of their surroundings that they are unlikely to be discovered except by acci- dent. Like other birds which build on the ground, they seem to be aware of this fact, and will let an intruder almost tread upon them with- out stirring. The Rock Ptarmigan is common on the main- land of Alaska where it is to be found chiefly on high ground in the summer months, whence it is driven into the valleys by the fierce winter storms. The scientists recognize six variations of this species ; they are : Reinhardt's Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestris rcinhardi), Nelson's Ptar- migan (Lagopus rupestris nclsoni), Turner's Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestris atkliensis), Townsend's Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestris toivn- sendi), the Adak, or Chamberlain's, Ptarmigan {Lagopus rupestris chamherlaini), and Dixon's Ptarmigan (Lagopus rupestris dixoni). Photos by I. S. Howe Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Aud. Soc. ROCK PTARMIGANS These pictures were taken Christmas Day on Turkey Creek, near Morrison, Colorado: they are a good illustration of the protective value of the dress of the Ptarmigans; the shadows on the snow can be seen at a greater distance than can the birds GROUSE 23 WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN Lagopus leucurus leucurus (Su'oiiisini', A. O. U. Number J04 Other Names. — Mountain Quail ; Snow Grouse ; Rocky Mouiuaiii Snow Grouse; White Quail. Description. — Length, 13 inches. Entire foot feath- ered ; tail less than -,! length of wing; tail-coverts reaching to end of tail. .'Xnui.TS in Summkr: Tail, most of wing, and lower parts from tjreast, pure white; rest of plumage, finely marked with grayish-brown, white, and black, varying with almost every specimen. .Adults in Winter: Entirely snoz>.' ti7ii(.-; bill, black. Young: Tail, gray. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: On ground in open situa- tions ; sometimes a mere depression in the ground, at others, quite a well-built structure of grass, leaves, and weed stalks, lined with feathers. Eggs: 10 to 16, pale buffy or light rusty-brown spotted or marbled with small dots or burnt-sienna over entire surface. Distribution. — Rocky Mountains from northern l!rili^.ll Columbia and central .Mberta south to Van- couver Island, Washington, northwestern Montana, Colorado, and northern New Mexico. It was on Piegan Pas.s in Glacier National Park, Montana, that I first saw the White-tailed Ptarmigan. An hour before we had left the tree line behind and had since been climbing steadily. Snow fields were all about us and beds of heather were abundant, in fact it was clear that we were now in the heart of the Ptarmigan country. We had all but reached the stniimil when stiddenly, within thirty feet of the trail and almost on a level with my eyes, as I sat on my horse, a Ptarmigan appeared with five young. Their color matched their stirroundings so nearly that liad they elected to sit still no eye in the party would have detected them. A low cluck- ing call from the mother bird was the only sound we heard. She exhibited no uneasiness and made no move to leave. Twenty minutes later, when a halt was made and some of us walked back with our cameras, the little family was still in the same place, and readily allowed themselves to be photographed at a distance of twelve feet. 1 lere on these Al])inc heights the Ptarmigan lives, with the Rosy Finches and the Pipits for its neighbors. In winter when all the world tlie Ptarmigan knows is covered deep in snow, we find that nature has also worked a miracle with the bird, for then its plumage is of snowy whiteness. In few birds is protective coloration exhibited to such an extent as in these Ptarmigans that live along " the top of the world." T. Gilbert Pearson. Photo by Nelson W. Logue Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Aud. Soc. WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGANS IN SUMMER PLUMAGE Male Female Taken July 14, 1905, at Willow Lake, Colorado, above the timber line, elevation 11,500 feet. All the white is snow 24 BIRDS OF AMERICA PRAIRIE CHICKEN Tympanuchus americanus americanus { RcichcnbacJi^ A. O. U. Number 305 Other Names. — Prairie Hen; Pinnated Grouse; Prairie Grouse. General Description. — Length, i8 inclies. Color above, yellowish-brown, spotted with black; below, white barred with dusky-brown. Tail, short, rounded, and with i8 feathers; tarsus, feathered to base of toes; toes, webbed at base; a tuft of narrow, stiff feathers about 3 inches long on each side of neck overlying an area of bare skin; head with a .slight soft crest. Neck tufts of female much smaller and less conspicuously colored. Color.— Adults ; Plumage above, yellowish-brown much broken by bro.-'.d traverse spots or irregular bars of deep black, this color in excess of lighter tints; fore- head, crown, and sides of head, deep buff; crown, much mottled with black and brown spots; a stripe from gape, beneath the eye, to nape, plain brownish-black; primaries and tail, plain dusky, the former with round spots of pale ocher on outer webs; tail, narrowly tipped with white; throat, plain buff bounded by a streak of dusky above, thus two stripes on side of head; rest ot lower parts, dull whitish, everywhere barred with nu- merous sharply defined bands of dusky-brown ; neck- tuft, rusty and pale buff at the neck, shading into deep l.ilack at ends. Nest and Eggs. — Nest ; On the ground in open prairie country, sheltered by grass tufts or bushes, or exposed ; a slight hollow in the soil, thinly lined with grass and a few feathers. Eggs: 8 to 12, light drab or dull buffy usually unmarked, sometimes lightly sprinkled with brown. Distribution. — Southeastern Saskatchewan and south- ern Manitoba to eastern Colorado, northeastern Texas, Arkansas, western Kentucky, and Indiana; probably extinct east of Indiana but formerly reached south- western Ontario, Michigan, and northwestern Ohio. The Prairie Chicken or Grouse, incltiding the somewhat smaller form, Attwater's Prairie Chictcen (Tviiipaiiiicluis aiiicricaiiKs attwatcri), which is found in Texas and Louisiana, still occurs, in sadly diminished numbers, from Mani- toba, Michigan, and Indiana to Texas and west- ward to the Great Plains where, as in the Dakotas, it has extended its range with the ad- vancement of civilization. The Prairie Grouse weighs about two pounds and its flesh is tender, juicy, and delicious. Some prefer it to the flesh of the Ruffed Grouse. It certainly is a magnifi- cent wild food bird and well worth preserving. Grouse cannot stand the ordinary destruction by natural enemies and the destruction by guns at the same time. Since the birds continued to vanish after shooting had been prohibited, it is evident that there are other causes for this be- sides shooting. The destruction of their foods and covers is sufficient to account for the loss. Cats, rats, and roving dogs in many places pre- vent any increase in their numbers. Prairie fires and floods often exterminate them on large areas. The same may be said of the Sharp- tailed Grouse, and of the Prairie Chicken of the northwestern States which once was plentiful as far west as California; this bird has suffered, also, from loss of its food and covers. The prairie grasses, the wild rose, the wild sunflower, and many other food plants often are absolutely destroyed on the big wheat farms where these birds formerly were abundant and where they are now extinct or nearly so. In addition to food the briers aft'ord safe protection when a Hawk or other enemy approaches. If we give their natural enemies a good chance to eat them, by destroying the Prairie Chickens' nesting sites and covers, and if we destroy absolutely their winter foods on vast areas, we must not expect the birds to return to places from which they have been extirpated merely because we have enacted laws prohibiting shooting. In explanation of the picture, " The Love- making of the Prairie Chicken," Dr. Frank M. Chapman writes : " On frosty sjiring mornings, as the sun rises over the prairies, one may at times hear a singular, resonant, booming note, boom-ah-b-o-o-m. boom-ah-b-o-o-ui. It is the love-song of the I'rairie Hen. He may be near at hand or possibly two miles away, so far does this sound, unobstructed by tree or hill, carry in the clear air. It is well worth following, how- ever, for we may find the maker of it, with per- haps ten to fifty of his kind, engaged in a most remarkable performance. During the mating season, from March until early in May, the Prairie Hens of a certain district or area gather before daybreak to take part in these courtship demonstrations. The feather-tufts on either part of the neck are erected like horns, the tail raised and spread, the wings drooped, when the bird first rushes forward a few steps, pauses, in- flates its orange-like air-sacs, and with a violent, jerking, muscular effort, produces the startling XI •3 e > 3 cr .a -». .o4 W H b. O O < > O u a .9 B o s •f -lift oj B ro\vn, sprinkled with black; below, whitish. A'o tufts on side of neck, but the patch of distensible skin is hidden ; head, slightly crested ; tarsus feathered to base of toes; toes with a fringe of horny processes in winter ; tail, graduated and much shorter than wing with feathers square at tips and middle pair extending some distance beyond the others ; middle tail-feathers of female shorter than those of male. Color. — Head and neck, deep huffy; a dull whitish area on each side of neck and a whitish stripe behind eye ; upper parts everywhere closely and evenly variegated with blackish-brown, dull chestnut, and grayish, these marks smallest on rump, reddish tones most pronounced on back, and the lighter colors everywhere sprinkled with blackish ; wing-coverts, like back but each feather with a conspicuous rounded white spot ; crown and back of neck also like back but smaller pattern, the bars mostly traverse; throat, light buff, unmarked; under parts, bufFy-white toward throat, clearer zvhite below; breast with numerous U- and V-shaped spots of dark brown ; similar but smaller spots scattered over rest of under parts except on middle of abdomen ; primaries, brownish ; secondaries with square yellowish-white spots tipped with white, the inner ones varied with colors of back; four middle tail-feathers, also like back, others white on inner webs, mottled on outer; bill, dark horn- color, flesh-colored below ; iris, light brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A hollow in the ground, lined with coarse grass and feathers. Eggs : 10 to 16, grayish-olive uniformly spotted with brown rarely larger than a pinhcad. Distribution. — Central .Maska and northwestern British Columbia east through central Keewatin to central-western Ungava. and south to Lake Superior and the Parry Sound district, Ontario; casual east to Saguenay River, Quebec. 28 BIRDS OF AMERICA The Sharp-tailed Grouse is commonly confused with the Prairie Chicken but most gunners recog- nize it at once by its acuminate tail and the absence of neck tufts. They designate it by such names as Sharp-tail, Pin-tail, Sprig-tail, Spike- tail. White-belly, etc. The species formerly was known to naturalists as Pedicrcctcs phasiancUiis, the Sharp-tailed Grouse. It has been divided into three sub- species, differing chiefly in the shades of color- ation. The Sharp-tailed Grouse is the more northern race which is confined to Canada and Alaska. This is a very dark bird with heavy, dark markings on the upper parts. The Colum- of environment. Therefore a description oi the habits of one race may be taken as typical of the species. With the first promise of spring on the Great Plains the remarkable mating antics of the Sharp-tail begin. As a spectacle this erratic dance would furnish amusement to a Hottentot. The birds have a meeting place where they gather at the booming calls of the male at early dawn and again at sunset. At first they appear to be standing quietly, then one begins the dance by partly spreading its wings in a horizontal direction, lowering its head, raising and spread- ing its tail, distending the air-sacs and then, Drawing by R. I. Brasher SHARP-TAILED GROUSE (i nat. size) This bird prefers thickets or the edges of timber bian Sharp-tailed Grouse { Pirdicrcrtrs f^liasia- nellus cohiuibianns) is much paler in tint, with the dark markings less conspicuous, and fre- quents the plains of the western region, from central British Columbia and central Alberta south to California, Utah, and Colorado, though now practically extinct in California. The Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse (Pedicrcctcs pltasia- nclliis caiiipcstris) is native to the prairie regions of southern Canada and the northern United States. These races have similar habits except as they mav be modified somewhat bv difTerences bristling up, runs across the floor of the meeting place, stamping its feet so hard and fast as to produce a drumming sound, uttering also what Ernest S. Thompson terms a sort of " bubbling crow," beating the air with its wings, and vi- brating its tail with a low rustling sound. Im- mediately all join the dance. Some circle to the right, others to the left, passing each other stiffly, charging back and forth, bowing, squatting, and posturing. Faster and faster goes the dance ; more and more madly swings the giddy whirl until the excited birds jump over the backs of GROUSE 29 tlu-ir conipaiiions, strut, swell, and even lis,'lu The pfrfi;rmancc resembles in some ways an Indian war dance and each liird seems to be anxious to make as much noise and show as possible. The dance soes on day after day until the mating season is over and often begins again in autunm. The nest, usually placed in the open, shaded perhajis by grasses, weeds, or bushes, is not very carefully concealed except when the female is sitting. Then her colors and markings blend so perfectly with the surroundings that no eye can find her and she will sit on the nest until trodden upon, rather than exjjose her eggs to hostile eyes. She rarely leaves it until the young arc hatched and gets her food, consisting of buds and grass- hoppers, close by. The young birds leave the nest when hatched and live on the ground and they have only to squat to become imperce])tiblc to the ordinary eye. When the brood has scattered the mother calls them together with a hoarse raucous croak. .About the middle of autunm they begin to alight in trees and to gather in large " packs." When startled and about to fiy they utter a sharp cack- ling sound and this is repeated' from time to time in the flight, which resembles that of the Prairie Chicken, as they alternately flap and sail. This bird seems to prefer shrubbery or the edges of the timber to the open plains, particularly in winter. Mdwakd IIowk I'oKiiusii. The food of the Sharp-tailed Grouse is similar to that of the I'rairie Grouse. Many grasshop- pers and other insects are eaten, the young being highly insectivorous like all the other Grouse, the Quails, and the Turkeys. The vegetable food com])rises leaves, buds, and flowers, weed seeds, fruit, and grain. Since this is the more northern species, it naturally relies more on buds than the I'rairie Grouse does, and in winter it eats birch buds, willow buds, and others. It is well worth preserving and could easily be re- stored and made plentiful and profitable on many of the big wheat farms of the northwestern and Pacific coast States. The Sharp-tail is very fond of wheat, but it cannot secure the grains be- neath the snow during the long winters, and it perishes because the wild roses and other winter foods have been destroyed. A handsome border to a private road, fence, or path, containing wild roses and sunflowers and prairie grasses, could be made to yield a good crop of Grouse, many of which might be shot on the stubbles in the autumn without any danger of extermination. Some stock birds should be left, of course, and the Prairie Falcon, the coyote, the snake and other enemies should not be permitted to devour them. SAGE HEN Centrocercus urophasianus ( Bonaf^artc) A. () V. Number 309 Other Names. — Cock of the Plains; Sage Cock; Sage Grouse. General Description. — Length, male. 25 to 30 inches ; female. 20 inches. Color above, black, brown, and yel- lowish-white, variegated ; below, yellow-white. Tarsus, feathered to toes ; tail, longer than wings, graduated, and with the 20 feathers pointed. Color. — Male : Above, varied with black, grayish- brown, and dull yellowish-white ; the wing-coverts, streaked with whitish ; tail with the marbling tending to form bars; on side of neck a patch of feathers with stiff shafts changing to hair-like filaments at ends about 3 inches long; in front of these feathers a naked patch of yellow skin capable of great distension ; above them a tuft of white down feathers covered with long plumes of black; chin and throat, blackish usually with a definite white collar behind; rest of lower parts, yellow-white with a large black area on abdomen. .'\dult Female: Plumage similar to male, but lacking black throat and with no peculiar feathers on neck; tail, much shorter and with narrower feathers. Young: Similar to adult female but brownish above. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Slight depression in the ground, scratched out by the bird, usually under sage bushes. Eggs : 7 to 9, dull yellowish-olive to greenish- brown, marked with round spots of dark brown. Distribution. — Sagebrush plains from southern Brit- ish Columbia, southern Saskatchewan, and northwestern North Dakota, south to middle-eastern California, northwestern New Mexico, and northwestern Nebraska. The Sage Hen is unique. It is the largest of fowls of the world. Nevertheless, the American American gallinaceous birds, excepting only the people are fast exterminating it. It exceeds all Wild Turkey. It is one of the most remarkable other Grouse in size, with the possible exception 30 BIRDS OF AMERICA of the great Black Grouse or Capercallie of Europe, and its peculiar nuptial performances go far to establish it as one of the wonders of animated nature which should be carefully pre- served for all time. Ordinarily it does little in- jury to man's crops or chattels. Why then should it be exterminated? Thus far the systematists have not been able to find a subspecies of the Sage Hen. Every- where it has the same habits, frequenting the high, dry alkali plains, sometimes at an altitude of more than seven thousand feet, among the sagebrush (Artemcsia). It stands or falls with the sagebrush and in these days it commonly falls. We are told now that it is disappearing in Oregon and Washington, gone from the Black Photo by W. L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman PORTRAIT OF SAGE HEN Hills, and thinning rapidly in numbers elsewhere. Like all the game birds of the open it can hide or fly from its natural enemies, but cannot with- stand the combination of man, dog, and gun, with shooting at all seasons of the year. The young are preferred for the table as they have less sage flavor than their parents, and when the callow young are destroyed the species cannot last, as the adults are not immortal. The old birds are " tougher than tripe," in more ways than one. Nevertheless, they may be eaten if properly pre- pared. Edwin Sandys says that he is willing to admit that " an aged sage hen doth possess that sageness that one might expect with advancing years," but carved with bowie knife or hatchet it will sustain human life. Its flavor is improved by drawing the bird as soon as it is dead. The Sage Cock has a sharp cackle, kek, kck, kek, which voices its alarm when flushed, but its mating notes are not what one would expect from a bird of its size. It begins its " drumming " or croaking very early in the season, sometimes even in fine winter weather. The mating grounds are in conspicuous places, such as a barren flat or moraine, and the birds may be readily watched from a distance with a powerful glass. From twenty-five to one hundred or more males congre- gate in these places. They are polygamous and the females come to them from all quarters at sunset or early in the morning. The males being in full dress and vigor late in February or in March in the United States, or later in higher latitudes, assemble at their chosen spots on fine mornings and, standing erect, hold their droop- ing wings well away from their sides, raise and spread the tail, which often works from side to side, while the loose skin of the neck is drawn in and out and the great pale sacs on the sides of the neck are distended until the white feathers surrounding them bristle out in all directions. The air sacs when inflated are not semi-globu- lar in shape, as in the Prairie Chicken, but irreg- ular, bulbous, and enormous, sometimes pro- truding an inch above the head and well out in front. The skin between the sacs is next drawn in with a sucking motion, bringing them nearly together and the air is expelled from the throat, producing peculiar guttural grunting or croaking sounds, some of which have been described by Bendire as resembling the purr of a cat, but louder. Bond says that it produces an " in- consequential chuckling noise," while Burnett describes it as resembling the sound of an old pump, thus, punk de punk, punk — the first note low and the last two higher in pitch. The cocks strut with tail widely spread and erect, the acuminate tail-feathers standing out separately like so many spikes, sometimes dragging the wings on the ground, and dance with the pomp of a Pouter Pigeon. Rival, jealous males fre- quently fight viciously, but the battling consists mostly in seizing one another by the head or neck and beating witli the wings and is not san- guinary or long continued. One of their habits at this time is to lower the breast to the ground and push it along. In some localities this is done so frequently that the feathers on the lower neck become worn down to mere shafts, appear- ing like so many bristles. Sometimes in their enthusiasm they even roll in the dust. Bond says that the cock inflates its neck until the whole neck and breast present a balloon-like appearance and then, bending forward, throws the entire weight of its body on the distended portions, sliding along on the bare ground for some dis- TURKEYS 31 tancc and concluding by expelling the air with a variety of cackling, cliuckling, (jr rumbling sounds. In May wlun the song of the Sage Thrush begins, the mating of the Sage Hens is about over. Then the females make their nests, often near some spring or stream. The mother bird on the nest is a difficult object to see. She seems to know it and sits very close. For this reason she is regarded as foolish and sometimes is known as " fool hen." The little ones are ready to run about fifteen minutes after they leave die shell, so Burnett informs us, are colored like little Turkeys, and " peep " similarly. Also they have a plaintive whistle, ra-do-ra-do. At night they nestle themselves under the mother's wings, only a row of little heads showing outside. As the summer wanes, the Sage Hens and their well- grown yoimg often spend the days on flats, near streams or near water holes. By November the young are full-grown, but are lighter in color than their mother. The Sage Grouse seldom is to be found far from the sagebrush. Where this grows high along the river bottoms the birds often lie closely and they match their environment in color, so that the hunter may walk into the midst of a brood without seeing them and they may rise on all sides. They labor into the air with noisy wings, but fly fast when well under way. \\ here they have been much hunted they are likely to rise beyond gunsluji and start for the horizon. Late in the season when they have become wary they assemble in " packs." In winter they are said to retire from some exposed localities to the valleys or to the shelter of the timber. Al- though they feed largely on the leaves of the sage, insects form a considerable part of the food of the young, and in some regions they attack grain, alfalfa, and garden plants. Their habits are such that they are exposed to the in- clemency of the weather, which ordinarily seems to affect them little. Sometimes, however, they become drenched by severe rains so that they are unable to rise from the ground. Hailstorms sometimes kill the young and even the full-grown birds. EuvvAKD Howe Fokbush. TURKEYS Order Gallina ; suborder Phasiani; family Meleagridcs HE Turkeys are distinctively American birds. Formerly ranked as a separate family, they are now regarded as the only native American representatives of the Pheasant family. They are confined to North America and to Central America, and the only species now recognized are the Common Turkey, of which the ornithologists describe five forms — Merriam's Turkey {Meleagris gallopavo mcrriami), the Florida Turkey {Meleagris gallopavo osceola), the Rio Grande Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia), the American Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) and the type species which is not found in the United States — and the Yucatan Ocellated Turkey, smaller but with even more brilliant plumage. Our Common Turkey is still found in a slightly different form in Mexico, whence it was introduced into Europe about 1530. Elon H. Eaton remarks that " the scientific name of the family is a misnomer, being the original name of the Guinea Hen, and if the popular impression of the origin of the common name is correct, this is a misnomer also, but it is probable, as has been suggested, that the common name has reference to the call note of the bird, which resembles the syllables turk, ttirk, turk." Turkeys have the head and neck naked except for a few stiff bristles, and wrinkled and wattled, with an erectile process growing on the forehead. The tarsus is naked, covered with scales, and, in the male, spttrrcd. The tail is broad and rounded with fourteen to eighteen blunt feathers. The male has a " beard " of coarse black bristles hanging from the center of upper breast. 32 BIRDS OF AMERICA WILD TURKEY Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot A. O. U. Xuniljer 310a Other Names. — American Turkey; Eastern Turkey; Xortliern Turkey ; Wood Turkey ; American Wild Turkey. General Description. — Length, male, 4 feet; female, 3 feet. Prevailing color, iridescent copper-bronze. Head and neck, naked. Color. — ."Xdult M.\le: The naked skin of the head and neck, dififerent shades of red, the excrescences more purplish or blue; the feathers are broad with square ends, each one well defined, giving the bird the appear- ance of being covered with scales, their ground color coppery-bronze, abruptly margined with velvet-black, the bronze assuming a greenish or purplish shade where the two colors meet; lower back and rump, black with little or no gloss ; upper and under tail-coverts, dark purplish-chestnut with a subterminal bar of black; tail, dark-brownish with numerous traverse bars of black and a broad subterminal bar of the same color from two inches wide on the outer feathers to about one inch on the central ones, spaces between the black bars speckled with dusky; bill, yellowish-white tinged with red ; legs, red, the scales outlined with yellowish- white ; claws, black ; iris, deep brown. Adult Fem.\le : Head and neck, smooth, pinkish or pale reddish ; rest of the plumage very much duller than in the male and with little or no metallic gloss. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Placed on the ground, in tall dense weeds or tangled thickets ; very well con- cealed. Eggs: 9 to 18, usually 9 to 12, warm yellowish- white evenly dotted over the entire surface with red- dish-brown. Distribution. — Eastern United States from Nebraska, Kansas, western Oklahoma, and eastern Texas east to central Pennsylvania, and south to the Gulf coast ; formerly north to South Dakota, southern Ontario, and southern Maine. When, early in the sixteenth century, the Spanish conquerors invaded Mexico, they found the natives in possession of some large domesti- cated birds which were extremely toothsome. Some were transferred to Spain and it was found they would breed readily in captivity. In time these birds were introduced into France and England, and by and by emigrants brought them back to America. The Turkey in its native con- dition is distinctively a North American species. The wild birds in this cotintry today chiefly in- habit deep woods and the borders of swamp- lands. In the southwest one may look for them among the chaparral in the neighborhood of streams, or in the oak and ])inon groves. At one time they were very abundant in many places, and early writers tell of their custom of gathering in flocks of hundreds and migrating on foot for long distances in quest of forest mast upon which they fed extensively. This habit of collecting in large flocks may still be noted in some regions, as for example on some of the islands ofif the coast of Georgia. Wild Turkeys are polygatnists, a strong gobbler having two or three hens under his observation. When the laying time approaches, the hens steal away and make their nests in the grass or bttshes in some open place in the woods, or abandoned bush-grown fields. They hide their nests with great care, not only to avoid foxes and other predatory animals, but to prevent detection by the gobbler. It is unanimously believed that he will break the eggs if he comes upon a nest. After the nesting season, groups of from ten to forty birds may be found feeding together in the bottom lands or coming into the crop field at dawn. They are usually hunted with dogs. A well- trained Turkey dog upon finding a group of birds rushes barking among them, thus causing the Turkeys to fly in all directions. The hunter goes to the spot, erects a small blind of logs or brush, calls in his dog, and sits down to wait for a time. In about an hour he begins to sound his call, imitating the get-together notes of the Tur- key. If fortune smiles ttpon him he will in the end get two or three birds, for the Turkeys have the habit of reassembling at the ]:)Iace from which they scattered when disturbed. T. Gilbert Pearson. Photograph of habitat gr^up Courtesy of American Museum of Natural History WILD TURKEYS IN THE WEST VIRGINIA MOUNTAINS Close relatives of our domesticated Turkey [33] 34 BIRDS OF AMERICA PHEASANTS Order Gallinw ; suborder Phasiani; family Phasiaiiidcs ITHIN recent years a new industry, the rearing of Pheasants, has begun to engage attention in the United States, and propagating ventures, ranging from the single pen with one or two pairs of birds to the pheasantry of many acres and thousands of birds, are scattered throughout the country. Some of these experiments have been conducted by the States through their game officials; others, by associations and individuals. In a few cases large expense has been incurred and great care and attention have been bestowed on the experiments. Efforts have been made also to stock numerous public and private parks, preserves, and aviaries. To supply the demand, not only have pheasants been imported from the Old World, but many persons in this country have undertaken to rear them. In view of the widespread and rapidly increasing interest in the subject, the Department of Agriculture has made a special investigation of the methods of Pheasant raising. The results are here condensed in the form of practical suggestions for the benefit of those interested in the industry. The true Pheasants are a strictly Old World genus and the species which have been introduced into this country are totally different and distinct from the Ruffed Grouse (called " Partridges" in most of the northern States), which is popularly but quite inaccurately called " Pheasant " in the southern, and also in some of the northern States, notably Ohio and Pennsylvania. This blunder originated in the early settler's habit of applying to American birds the names of more or less similar European species, though in this instance it must have required a considerable tax on the imagination to detect any resemblance between the strikingly colored and very long-tailed European Pheasants and the neutral hued, always short-tailed Grouse of the New World. A few words as to different kinds of Pheasants are essential to a proper understanding of the subject of Pheasant propagation. The Ring-necked Pheasant usually imported from China, its natural home, has a broad white ring about the neck. It is variously called Ring- neck Pheasant, Chinese Pheasant, China Pheasant, China Torquatus Pheasant, Chinese Ringneck, Mongolian Pheasant, Denny Pheasant, and Oregon Pheasant. The English Pheasant has no ring about the neck. It is imported from Europe, but in comparatively small numbers, and is known as the English Pheasant, Dark-necked Pheasant, and Hungarian Pheasant. The English Ringneck Pheasant, a hybrid between the English and Ring-necked Pheasants, has been brought from Europe in large numbers. It is generally correctly named, but is sometimes designated as English Pheasant, Ringneck Pheasant, and even Mongolian Pheasant. It often has more or less of the blood of the Versicolor Pheasant, of Japan. In England both the English Pheasant and the English Ringneck are referred to as the Common Pheasant. The Mongolian Pheasant which has a more or less complete white ring about the neck, but in other respects resembles the English Pheasant more than it does the Ringneck, is the rarest of the four kinds in American preserves and aviaries. It is a native of the region about Lake Balkash, Central Asia. The Bohemian Pheasant and the White Pheasant are merely color phases, chiefly of the English Pheasant and the English Ringneck. The Reeves Pheasant, a large and striking bird with a tail sometimes five or six feet long, is usually met with in aviaries, though it has been placed in game coverts in Europe and, to a very limited extent, in the United States, and may still be found on certain Scotch estates, where it ranks very high as a game bird. It normally inhabits east-central Asia. Two of the best known and most commonly imported Pheasants are the Golden and Lady Amherst, both of the genus Chrysolophiis, originally from the mountains of eastern Tibet and western and southern China. Both are favorite aviary birds, and the Golden Pheasant has been liberated in various game covers in America and Europe, but with indiffer- PHEASANTS 35 cnl success. The Silver Pheasant is often seen in parks and aviaries, but the numerous other members of the genus, usually called Kaleeges (or Kalijes), are not often imported into this countr>\ The home of the genus is the Indo-Chinese countries and the lower ranges of the Himalayas. The Eared Pheasants, large, dull-colored birds of the higher ranges of central and eastern Asia, are known in American aviaries mainly through the Manchurian Pheasant, the most northeriN- member of the genus. These Pheasants lack the timidity so character- istic of most of the Pheasant family and would probably lend themselves readily to domestica- tion. At present their high price is practically prohibitive of any extensive attempt to domesticate them, but, should they become more common, they would be excellent subjects for such experiments. The English Pheasant {Phasianus colchicus) derives its specific name from the ancient countn,^ of Colchis, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. It was imported thence into Europe by the Greeks, probably under Alexander the Great, and was by them reared for food. Its propagation in con- finement was continued in the days of the Roman Empire, under which it appears to have been carried on throughout much of Europe and as far west as Britain. It was introduced into Ireland and Scotland before the close of the sixteenth century. It is now acclimatized practically all over Europe, and has been introduced into the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Efforts to acclimatize Pheasants in the United States are of comparatively recent origin, though earlier than is popularly supposed. Richard Bache, an Englishman who married the only daughter of Ben- jamin Franklin, imported from England both Pheasants and Partridges, which he liberated on his estate in New Jersey, on the Delaware River near where the town of Beverly now stands. But, although he provided both shelter and food for them, the birds had all disappeared by the follow- ing spring. A second attempt was made early in the nineteenth century by the owner of a New Jersey estate situated between the Hackensack meadows and the Passaic River, opposite Belleville. A park was fenced and stocked with deer and English Pheasants, but despite feeding and careful protection these birds likewise disappeared during the winter. Robert Oliver of Harewood, near Baltimore, Md., for many years imported foreign game, including not less than one hundred English Pheasants. These increased rapidly and were in time turned out, some at Hampton, some at Brookland Wood, and a large number at Harewood. Those liberated at Hampton and Brookland Wood bred, and were occasionally seen afterwards, but those turned out at Harewood soon disappeared, the last being seen in 1827. In 1829-30, Mr. Oliver liberated at his estate at Oaklands, in Anne Arundel County, more than twenty Pheasants of his own raising. On Mr. Oliver's death his son Thomas continued the experiments, but they proved unsuccessful. These initial importations were followed by similar attempts to stock jirivate preserves, but met with like failure. In 1880, however, a successful effort was made to introduce the Vol. II— 4 Photu by H. T. Middlelon WILD RING-NECKED PHEASANT (HEN) 36 BIRDS OF AMERICA Ringneck Pheasant into Oregon, and since then acclimatization experiments have followed broader lines and have assumed greater importance. The failure of many efforts to add Pheasants to our fauna is largely due to insufficient knowledge of their habits and the character of their normal environment. It is useless to undertake to acclimatize a bird in a region differing widely in climatic and other physical conditions from those to which it has been accustomed. It must be remembered, also, that introduced birds have to adapt themselves to a new flora and fauna, and that this is often a slow process and frequently fails. If liberated in the wilds, they must be provided with reserve food and shelter until able to care for them- selves, which may take several years. In Oregon the Ringnecks put out came at first regu- larly to farm-yards to feed with the domestic fowls; and English Ringnecks liberated on Grand Island, Michigan, were driven back by severe weather to the pens from which they had been allowed to escape a few months before. If Pheasants are imported for stocking preserves, suitable coverts should be pre- pared for them. In their native country Pheasants frequent the margins of woods, coming into open tracts in search of food, retreating into thick undergrowth when alarmed. An ideal Pheasant country is one containing small groves with underbrush and high grass between the trees, thorny hedges, berry-growing shrubs, water overgrown with reeds, and occasional pastures, meadows, and cultivated grain-fields. Bleak mountains, dry sandy wastes, and thick woods are not frequented by Pheasants normally; nor do they seek pines, except for protection. A small grove of mixed evergreen and deciduous trees on the southern slope of a hill furnishes favorable shelter. On the pre- serve additional shelter should be provided in winter. Henry Oldys, in Pheasant Raising in the United States. Photo by W. T. U, Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Aud. Soc. PHEASANT'S NEST Gardiners Island, New York ENGLISH PHEASANT Phasianus colchicus Linnccus Length. — Male, 2(> inches or less according to devel- opment of the tail, tail up to 21 inches; female, about .?4 inches, tail 12 inches. Slightly larger than the Ring- necked Pheasant. Spread of Wings. — 32 inches. Weight. — Male, about 3 pounds; female, about 2 pounds. Description. — Male: Tail very long, coneate, taper- ing; head with ear tufts and finely mottled sides; head and neck peacock-blue, glossed with metallic reflections of green, bronze, and purple; sides of head. bare, scarlet ; back, orange-brown, variegated with dark green, bufif, and black ; rump and upper tail-coverts, rufous, with black and reddish variegations; tail, olive- brown, edged with purplish-rufous, and barred with black ; breast, glossy, coppery chestnut, edged with pur- plish ; no rings about the neck. Female; Plain blended light brown and dusky. RING-NECKED PHEASANT Phasianus torquatus Gmelin Length. — 34 inches when the tail is full-grown. Spread of Wings. — 32 inches. Weight. — 2.)4 pounds or more. Description. — Similar in general color to the English Pheasant, but male with a conspicuous white ring about the neck; top of head, more greenish-bronze and a whit- ish line on sides of crown ; the sides, golden buff spotted with black ; the upper wing-coverts, pale gray- ish-blue ; the sides of the rump, grayish-blue; abdomen, greenish-black. ORDER OF PIGEONS AND DOVES Order Columbw; family Columbidcc niE names Pigeon and Dove, applied to birds of this group, are synonymous or interchangeable. The former is French (Italian, piccione or pipione, Latin pipio); the latter is akin to the Dutch duij (Danish due, Icelandic dufa). The name Dove is commonly applied to the smaller members of the group, though in England the largest species is called the Ring Dove; and, as Pro- fessor Alfred Newton remarked in his Dictionary of Birds, "no sharp dis- %fe tinction can be drawn between Pigeons and Doves, and in general literature ^%k the two words are used almost indifferently while no one species can be pointed Jfl^V out to which the word Dove, taken alone, seems to be absolutely proper." ■^ wF Pigeons are monogamous, but nevertheless are to a degree fickle or inconstant in their affections, at least in the domesticated species, and are by no means the peaceful birds they are popularh' supposed to be — fierce, bloody, and stubborn conflicts often occurring during the breeding season. The eggs number one or two and are usually immaculate white but sometimes are immaculate buff. The nest is a very simple affair, usually flat and frail, composed of twigs, straw, or similar materials, placed in a tree, upon stumps, rocks, or walls, clefts of cliffs, in buildings, or on the ground. Both sexes take equal part in nest building, incubation, and care of the young. The latter are hatched naked, except for scattered bits of filamentous down, and are fed first by a fluid secreted in the crop of the adult and later with moistened or partially digested seeds or grain from the parents' crop, the young one in both cases inserting its bill into the parent's mouth, the regurgitation of the food by the parent being accompanied by a violent or spasmodic jerking of the body and wings. The food of Pigeons consists principally of grains, seeds, and fruits, and salt is seemingly a necessity to them. In drinking, the bill is immersed to the nostrils, and the water drawn in in a continuous draft, a method in which they are, so far as known, unique among birds. The voice of Pigeons is, usually, a soft coo, varied in strength and modulation according to species. It is sometimes extremely loud in proportion to the size of the bird, one of the smaller American species, the blue Ground Dove, producing a sound resembling that made by blowing one's breath into the mouth of a bottle, but nearly as loud as the bellowing of a bull. In others the voice is plaintive or even mournful. The Pigeons have the head small; neck short; bill horny at the tip, compressed, and with a tumid swelling near the base about the nostril; wings pointed, flat, powerful, with rapid whistling flight; legs short, the tarsus scaled on the sides and back and sometimes in the front as well ; front toes cleft to the base or with a slight membrane between the middle and outer toes ; hind toe level with the front toes, thus making them arboreal as well as ter- restrial in their habits because they can perch easily; body plump and full-breasted; and eye region usually more or less naked. The plumage is peculiarly dense, but is easily detached from the very tender skin. Pigeons are found throughout the temperate and tropical portions of the world, but are most numerous in the eastern hemisphere, especially in the islands of the Indo-Malayan and Australian regions, where the most beautifully colored species occur, many of them being among the handsomest of birds. More than five hundred and fifty species and subspecies are known, of which only about one hundred species and subspecies occur in America, and only seventeen of these are of regular or even rare occurrence north of the southern boundary of the United States. [37l 38 BIRDS OF AMERICA BAND^TAILED PIGEON Columba fasciata fasciata Say A. O. U. Number 312 Other Names. — White-collared Pigeon ; Wild Pigeon. General Description. — Length, 16 inches. Head and under parts, purjdish-drab ; upper parts, brownish- gray and bluish-gray. Color. — Adults: Head, purplish-drab becoming paler and usually more grayish on cheeks and throat, which are sometimes distinctly more grayish in contrast with color of crown ; across nape or upper hmdneck, a bar of white: below this, the whole hindneck, metallic greenish-bronze, the feathers with sharp outlines, pro- ducing a somewhat scaled efifect ; back, shoulders, and front lesser wing-coverts, grayish-brown, very faintly glossed, in certain lights, with bronzy ; rump and upper tail-coverts, neutral gray; tail, hrownish-gray with a band of darker gray to dull black across the middle portion separating the darker and lighter gray areas ; rear lesser wing-coverts, middle coverts, and greater coverts, brownish-gray, the greater coverts, narrowly edged with white; inner secondaries, similar but more brownish, without distinct whitish edgings, the outer ones much darker, distinctly though narrowly edged with whitish ; primaries and coverts, dusky, the first narrowly edged with white; under parts, purple-drab usually somewhat clearer or more reddish on under parts of body and more grayish on throat, the abdomen (at least the lower portion), anal region, and under tail-coverts, white; under wing-coverts, pale neutral gray ; bill, yellow, the tip black ; iris, pale yellow ne.^t to pupil with outer ring of pink or lilac; eyelids, red; legs and feet, clear cadmium-yellow. Young: Very dififerent in coloration from adults, only the tail, wings, and primary coverts being similar ; no white bar on nape nor metallic feathers on hindneck; crown, hind- neck, sides of neck, and sides of head, brownish-gray, much paler on chin and upper throat ; smaller wing- coverts, margined with paler, as are also feathers of chest; shoulders sometimes suffused with brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A slight, frail platform of small, narrow twigs in trees or bushes or in forests, near water; sometimes on ground with slight nesting material. Eggs : I or 2, porcelain-white. Distribution. — Western United States north to southwestern British Columbia and Montana, from Pacific coast to Rocky Mountains ; east to Montana, western North Dakota, Colorado, New Mexico, and western Texas ; southward over nearly the whole of Mexico and through the highlands of Guatemala to northern Nicaragua. Drawing by R. Bruce Horsfall BAND-TAILED PIGEON (; nat. si?el A fine bird, in danger of becoming extinct The most striking example of the disajipear- ance of a species in American nattiral history is that of the Passenger Pigeon. The Band-tailed Pigeon of the West might have followed in the path of the eastern bird within a few years, had our people not been aroused to its necessity for protection. The enactment in 1913 of the Federal law for the protection of migratory birds was the most important step ever taken in saving this as well as other species of American birds. Under the provisions of this act, the Band-tailed Pigeon has been removed entirely from the list of game birds that can be killed until September I, igi8. The Band-tailed Pigeon, often called \\"\\A Pigeon, is sometimes mistaken for the Passenger Pigeon. It ranges up and down the Pacific coast with an occasional record as far east as Colo- rado and western Texas. The habit of the Pigeon collecting in large bands in certain sea- sons has made it possible in the past for hunters to kill enormous numbers. This, coupled with the fact that the bird does not reproduce itself rapidly, usually laying but a single egg, is suffi- cient reason whv it can be exterminated readily. PIGEONS AND DUVES 39 Twenty-five or thirty years ago, men made a business of netting Band-tailed Pigeons in the Willamette valley, Oregon, for the market. Mr. O. G. Dalaba of Corvallis, Oregon, says that he caught a great many in the coast hills in the early nineties. He says he got twenty-five dozen birds at one spring of the net at Eddyville and many others got away. -At that time, they were shipped to Portland and San Francisco by way of steamers from Yaquina Bay. He shipped as many as eighty dozen at a time. The birds were accustomed to collect around mineral springs or at watering places at certain seasons of the year. During the winter of 191 1 and I')1J. iMr. W. Lee Chambers reported an immense flight of Band-tailed Pigeons from Paso Robles south to Xordhoff all tlirough the coast mountains. Great numbers of the birds were killed and shipped to San Francisco and Los Angeles. One hunter shipped over two thousand birds. A great many hunters from all through southern California turned out daily to shoot Pigeons. This was a good example of a certain time and place where perhaps a large portion of the existing numbers of Pigeons collect together and stay about in one locality until they are practically destroyed. It would take very few occurrences like this to exterminate the species. • William L. Finley. PASSENGER PIGEON Ectopistes migratorius {Linucciis) :\. O. U. Number 315 See Color I'late 42 Other Names. — \Vild Pigeon ; Pigeon ; Wood Pigeon ; Red-brcastod Pigeon ; Blue-headed Pigeon. General Description. — Length, 17 inches. Pre- vailing color above, grayish-blue; below, reddish-fawn. Tail, very long, graduated for more than half its length. the feathers (12 in number) narrowed terminally and obtusely pointed ; wings, long and pointed. Color. — Adult M.jiLe: Head, including nape, plain bluish-gray, paler on chin and upper throat; hindneck similar, but glossed with golden or coppery-bronze ; the sides of neck, brilliant golden-bronze changing to metallic purple-bronze; back, slate-gray tinged with grayish-brown or olive-brown ; shoulders and inner secondaries, grayish-brown, some of the former with a large oblong black spot (mostly concealed) on outer web, the rear shoulder-feathers also with inner web edged with black ; inner wing-coverts, similar in color to shoulders but usually slightly (often distinctly) more grayish, passing on outer coverts into slate-gray ; outer secondaries, dull brownish-black or dusky, usually nar- rowly edged terminally with paler ; primary coverts and primaries, dark grayish-brown, the latter (except outermost) narrowly margined with dull whitish, the edgings on outer web growing much broader basally, and often orange-cinnamon, at least in part; lower back and upper rump, clear bluish-gray, passing into more brownish-gray on upper tail-coverts; middle pair of tail-feathers, darker brownish-gray passing into dusky terminally; ne.\t pair with outer web light gray, inner web white, the next three pairs similar but with white of inner web passing into pale gray basally. the outer- most with outer web white — all (except middle pair) with a sub-basal roundish black spot on inner web, preceded by a spot of cinnamon-rufous; lower throat, foreneck, chest, breast, and sides, plain reddish-fawn color, passing into white on abdomen, anal region, and under tail-coverts ; bill, black ; iris, scarlet or scarlet- vermilion ; bare eye space, livid flesh color; legs and feet, lake-red or pinkish-red. Adult Fem.\le: Dis- tinctly duller in plumage than the adult male: the head, more brownish-gray; the back, shoulders, and second- aries, more decidedly brownish ; the shoulders and wing- coverts, more heavily spotted with black; the reddish- fawn color of the foreneck and rest of under parts, replaced by light drab, passing into pale drab-gray on breast and sides and metallic gloss of hindneck and sides of neck less brilliant; iris, orange or orange-red; bare eye space, pale grayish-blue ; legs and feet, paler lake-red than in adult male. Nest and Eggs.— Nest: Before its extermination, nested in myriads ; in the extensive forests sometimes fifty or more of their frail structures of twigs seen in a single tree. Eggs : I or 2, pure white. Distribution. — Now extinct, the last living specimen having died in the Cincinnati Zoological Garden, Sep- tember I, 1914. Formerly perhaps the most numerous of all birds, inhabiting practically the whole forested area of eastern North .America, breeding northward to middle western Keewatin, northern Ontario. Quebec, northern Maine, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, southward to Kansas, northern Mississippi, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania ; migrating southward to the Gulf coast (Florida to Texas), casually to Cuba, eastern Me.xico, and Guatemala ; westward regularly, along the Missouri River to eastern Montana and to western Texas, accidentally to Nevada, Wyoming, eastern Ore- gon, western Washington, and British Columbia; acci- dental in British Isles, Europe, and the Bermudas. 40 BIRDS OF AMERICA More interest is evidenced in the history of the Passenger Pigeon and its fate than in that of any other North American bird. Its story reads like a romance. Once the most abundant species, in its flights and on its nesting grounds, ever known in any country, ranging over the greater part of the continent of North America in in- numerable hordes, the race seems to have disap- peared during the nineteenth century, leaving no trace. The Passenger Pigeon was described by Linne in the latter part of the eighteenth century ; but it was well known in America many years before. In July, 1605, on the coast of Maine, in latitude 43° 25', Champlain saw on some islands an " in- finite number of Pigeons," of which he took a great quantity. Many early historians, who write of the birds of the Atlantic coast region, mention the Pigeons. The Jesuit Fathers, in their first narratives of Acadia (1610-13), state that the birds were fully as abundant as the fish, and that in their seasons the Pigeons overloaded the trees. Passing from Nova Scotia to Florida, we find that Stork (1766) asserts that they were in such plenty there for three months of the year that an account of them would seem incredible. John Lawson (1709), in his History of Carolina, speaks of prodigious flocks of Pigeons in 1701- 02, which broke down trees in the woods where they roosted, and cleared away all the food in the country before them, scarcely leaving one acorn on the ground. The early settlers in Vir- ginia found the Pigeons in winter " beyond num- ber or imagination." The Plymouth colony was threatened with famine in 1643, when great flocks of Pigeons swept down upon the ripened corn and beat down and ate " a very great quan- tity of all sorts of English grain." But Winthrop says that in 1648 they came again after the harvest was gathered, and proved a great bless- ing, " it being incredible what multitudes of them were killed daily." These great flights of Pigeons in migration ex- tended over vast tracts of country, and usually passed in their greatest numbers for about three days. This is the testimony of observers in many parts of the land. Afterwards, flocks often came along for a week or two longer. Even as late as the decade succeeding i860 such flights con- tinued, and were still observed throughout the eastern States and Canada, except perhaps along the Atlantic coast. About 1850 indications of the disappearance of the Pigeons in the East began to attract some notice. They became rare in Newfoundland in the 6o's, though formerly abundant there. They grew fewer in Ontario at that time ; but, accord- ing to Fleming, some of the old roosts there were occupied until 1870. Alexander Wilson, the father of American ornithology, tells of a breeding place of the Wild Pigeons in Shelby ville, Ky. (probably about 1806), which was several miles in breadth, and was said to be more than forty miles in extent. More than one hundred nests were found on a tree. The ground was strewn with broken limbs of trees ; also eggs and dead squabs which had been precipitated from above, on which herds of hogs were fattening. He speaks of a flight of these birds from another nesting place some sixty miles away from the first, toward Green River, where they were said to be equally nu- merous. They were traveling with great steadi- ness and rapidity, at a height beyond gunshot, several strata deep, very close together, and " from right to left as far as the eye could reach, the breadth of this vast procession extended ; seeming everywhere equally crowded." From half-past one to four o'clock in the afternoon, while he was traveling to Frankfort, the same living torrent rolled overhead, seemingly as ex- tensive as ever. He estimated the flock that passed him to be two hundred and forty miles long and a mile wide — probably much wider — and to contain two billion, two hundred and thirty million, two hundred and seventy-two thousand pigeons. On the supposition that each bird consumed only half a pint of nuts and acorns daily, he reckoned that this column of birds would eat seventeen million, four hundred and twenty-four thousand bushels each day. Audubon states that in the autumn of 1813 he left his house at Henderson, on the banks of the Ohio, a few miles from Hardensburgh, to go to Louisville, Ky. He saw that day what he thought to be the largest flight of Wild Pigeons he had ever seen. The air was literally filled with them; and the " light of noonday was obscured as by an eclipse." Before sunset he reached Louisville, fifty-five miles from Hardensburgh, and during all that time Pigeons were passing in undimin- ished numbers. This continued for three days in succession. The people were all armed, and the banks of the river were crowded with men and boys, incessantly shooting at the Pigeons, which flew lower as they passed the river. For a week or more, the people fed on no other flesh than Pigeons. The atmosphere during that time was strongly impregnated with the odor of the birds. Audubon estimated the number of Pigeons pass- ing overhead (in a flock one mile wide) for three hours, traveling at the rate of a mile a Courtesy of thu N'-w York State Museum Plate 42 MALE 3 nat. size MOURNING DOVE Zenaidura mncrmira cnrnUnciisii (Linnaeus) FEMALE YOUNG MALE i nul. size PIGEONS AND DUVES 41 iniiiutc, allowing two Pigeons to the scjuare yard, as one billion, one hundred and lifleen million, one hundred and thirty-six thousand. lie esti- mated, also, that a flock of this size would re- quire eight million, seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels of food a day, and this was only a small part of the three days' flight. Great flights of Pigeons ranged from the AUe- ghenics to the Mississi])i)i and from Hudson Hay to the (julf of Mexico until after tiie middle of tile nineteenth century. Even two decades later, enormous numbers of Pigeons nested in several States. Their winter roosting places almost defy de- scription. Audubon rode through one on the banks of the Green l^iver in Kentucky for more than forty miles, crossing it in difTferent direc- tions, and found its average width to be rather more than three miles, tie observed that the ejecta covered the whole extent of the roosting place, like snow ; that many trees two feet in diameter were broken ofif not far from the ground, and that the branches of many of the largest and tallest had given way. The birds came in soon after sundown with a noise that sounded " like a gale passing througli the rigging of a close-reefed vessel," causing a great current of air as they passed ; and here and there as the flocks alighted, the limbs gave way with a crash, destroying hundreds of birds beneath. It was a scene of uproar and confusion. No one dared venture into the woods during tiie night, because of the failing branches. The nesting places sometimes were equal in size to the roosting places, for tiie Pigeons con- gregated in enormous numbers to breed in the northern and eastern States. When food was plentiful in the forests, the birds concentrated in large numbers ; when it was not, they scattered in smaller groups. The last great nesting place of which we iiave adequate record was in Michi- gan, in 1878. Prof. H. B. Roney states, in the American Field, that the nesting near Petoskey, that year, covered something like 100,000 acres, and included not less than 150,000 acres within its limits. It was estimated to be about forty miles in length and from three to ten miles in width. It is difficult to approximate the number of millions of Pigeons that occupied tliat great nesting place. .A.udubon, who described the dreadful havoc made among these birds on their roosting grounds by man, says that people unacquainted with them might naturally conclude that such destruction would soon put an end to the species ; but he had satisfied himself, bv long observation. lliat nothing but the gradual diminution of the forests could accomplisli the decrease of llie birds, for he believed that they not infrequently ([uadrupled their numbers during the year, and always doubled tliem. Tlie enormous multitudes of tiie Pigeons made such an impression upon the mind that the extinction of the species at that time, and for many years afterwards, seemed an absolute inii)ossibility. Ncvertiieless, it has oc- curred. How can this apparent impossibility be explained? It cannot be accounted for by the dcstructiveness of their natural enemies, for during the years when the Pigeons were tiie most abundant their natural enemies were most numerous. The extinction of the Pigeons has been coincident willi the disappearance of bears, panthers, wolves, lynxes, and some of the larger birds of prey from a large portion of tiieir range. The aborigines never could have reduced ap- preciably the numbers of the species. Where- ever the great roosts were established, Indians always gatliered in large numbers. This, accord- ing to their traditions, had been the custom among them from time immemorial. They al- ways had slaughtered these birds, young and old, in great quantities ; but tiiere was no market among tlie Indians, and tlie only way in which they could preserve the meat for future use was by drying or smoking the breasts. They cured large numbers in this way. Also, they were ac- customed to kill great quantities of the squabs in order to try out the fat, whicii was used as butter is used by the whites. Lawson writes (1709) : " You may find several Indian towns of not above seventeen houses that have more tlian 100 gallons of pigeon's oil or fat." But it was not until a market demand for the birds was created by the whites that the In- dians ever seriously affected the increase of the Pigeons. Kalm states, in his monograph of the Pigeon, that the Indians of Canada would not molest the Pigeons in their breeding places until the young were able to fly. They did everything in their power to prevent the whites from dis- turbing them, even using threats, where pleading did not avail. When the white man appeared on this conti- nent, conditions rapidly changed. Practically all the early settlers were accustomed to the use of firearms ; and wherever Pigeons appeared in great numbers, the inhabitants armed themselves with guns, clubs, stones, poles, and whatever could be used to destroy the birds. The most destructive implement was the net, to which the birds were attracted by bait, and under which vast numbers of them were trapped. Gunners 42 BIRDS OF AMERICA baited the birds with grain. Dozens of birds sometimes were killed thus at a single shot. In one case seventy-one birds were killed by two shots. A single shot from the old flint-lock, single-barreled gun, fired into a tree, sometimes would procure a back load of Pigeons. The Pigeons were reduced greatly in numbers on the whole Atlantic seaboard during the tirst two centuries after the settlement of the country, but in the West their numbers remained appar- ently the same until the nineteenth century. There was no appreciable decrease there during the first half of that century ; but during the latter half, railroads were pushed across the plains to the Pacific, settlers increased rapidly to the Mississippi and beyond, and the diminution of the Pigeons in the West began. Already it had become noticeable in western Pennsylvania, western New York, along the Appalachian motmtain chain and in Ohio. This was due in part to the destruction of the forests, particularly the beech woods, which once covered vast tracts, and which furnished the birds with a chief supply of food. Later, the primeval pine and hemlock forests of the northern States largely were cut away. This deprived the birds of another source of food — the seed of these trees. The destruc- tion of the forests, however, was not complete ; for, although great tracts of land were cleared, there remained and still remain vast regions more or less covered by coppice growth sufficient to furnish great armies of Pigeons with food, and the cultivation of the land and the raising of grain provided new sources of food supply. Therefore, while the reduction of the forest area in the East was a large factor in the diminution of the Pigeons, we cannot attribute their exter- mination to the destruction of the forest. Forest fires undoubtedly had something to do with reducing the numbers of these birds, for many were destroyed by these fires, and in some cases large areas of forest were ruined absolutely by fire, thus for many years depriving the birds of a portion of their food supply. Nevertheless, the fires were local and restricted, and had com- paratively little efTect on the vast numbers of the species. The net, though used by fowlers almost every- where in the East from the earliest settlement of the country, was not a great factor in the ex- termination of the Pigeons in the Mississippi valley States until the latter half of the nine- teenth century. With the extension of railroads and telegraph lines through the States, the occu- pation of the netter became more stable than before, for he could follow the birds wherever they went. The number of men who made net- ting an occupation after the year i860 is vari- ously estimated at from 400 to 1000. Whenever a flight of Pigeons left one nesting place and made toward another, the netters learned their whereabouts by telegraph, packed up their be- longings, and moved to the new location, some- times following the birds a thousand miles at one move. Some of them not only made a liv- ing, but earned a competency, by netting Pigeons during part of the year and shooting wild-fowl and game birds during the remainder of the season. In addition to these there were the local netters, who plied the trade only when the Pigeons came their way. Possibly the last great slaughter of Pigeons in New York, of which we have record, was some time in the 70's. A flock had nested in Missouri in April, where most of the squabs were killed by the pigeoners. This flock then went to Michi- gan, where they were followed by the same pigeoners, who again destroyed the squabs. The Pigeons then flew to New York State, and nested near the upper Beaverkill in the Catskills, in the lower part of Ulster County. It is said that tons of the birds were sent to the New York market from this nesting place, and that not less than fifteen tons of ice were used in packing the squabs. During the 70's most of the Pigeons concen- trated in the West. They often passed the winter in Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, the Indian Territory and contiguous regions, and the sum- mer in Micliigan and adjacent States and in the Canadian northwest. At this time some very large nets were used, grain beds were made, and the birds were allowed to come and feed there until from 200 to 250 dozen were taken some- times at one haul. Still, people read of the " mysterious " disap- pearance of the Passenger Pigeon, wonder what caused it, and say that it never has been satis- factorily explained. The New York market alone would take 100 barrels a day for weeks, without a break in price. Chicago, St. Louis, Boston and all the great and little cities of the North and East joined in the demand. Need we wonder why the Pigeons have vanished? The birds that survived the slaughter at Pe- toskey in 1878 finally left the nesting place in large bodies and disappeared to the North, and from that time onward the diminution of the Pigeons was continuous. Some of the netters asserted that this great flight was swallowed up in Lake Michigan, and that the Pigeons then became practically extinct. Tliis statement had no foun- PIGEUNS AND UUVES 43 elation in fact. It is probable that when they left I'ctoskey in 1878 they retired into inaccessible regions of Canada, beyond reach of the rail and telegraph, to breed again. In April, 18S0, they again passed through Michigan. There were man)' smaller nestings for years after the Petoskey nesting of 1878, but the records are meager, for apparently no naturalist visited them. The I'ctoskey nesting of 1878 was umisually large for that time, for the reason that the birds at three large breeding places in other States or regions were driven out by persecu- tion, and joined the Petoskey group. Alter this the birds exhibited a tendency to scatter to regions where they were least molested. There seem to have been two great nestings in Michigan in 1881. Our Canadian records of the species at this time are meager. Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton says that it bred in Manitoba in considerable numbers as late as 1887; but he also says that the last year in which the Pigeons came to Manitoba "in force" was in 1878; next year they were comparatively scarce, and each year since they have become more so. A flock was seen in Illinois in 1895, from which two specimens were taken. At that time the netting of the birds had been practically given up, and most of the dealers had seen no Pigeons for two seasons. It finally ceased, on account of the virtual extinction of the birds. .■\. large correspondence and a careful search through some of the literature of the latter part of the century leads to the belief that the Pigeons were common and in some cases abundant in portions of the West from 1880 to 1890, though gradually decreasing. After 1893 the reports became more vague and less trustworthy, except in a few cases. Small flocks were seen and sijccimens taken in the last decade of the nine- teenth century in Canada, and in Wisconsin, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana and other western States and even in some of the Eastern States. Chief Pokagon reported a nesting of Pigeons near the headwaters of the Ausable River in Michigan in 1896. In 1898 a flock of about 200 birds was said to have been seen in Michigan ; one was taken ; and in 1900 about fifty birds were reported. While the big nestings of 1878 and 1881 in Michigan were the last immense breeding places of Passenger Pigeons on record, the species did not become extinct in a day or a year ; they were not wiped from the face of the earth by any great catastrophe ; they gradually became fewer and fewer for twentv to twentv-five vears after the dale set by the pigeoners as that of the last great migration. Efforts have been made to account for the supposed sudden disapi)earance of the Pigeons by tales of cyclonic sea disturbances or lake storms, which are supposed to have drowned practically all of them. Undoubtedly thousands of Pigeons were destroyed occasionally, during their flights, by storms or fogs at sea or on the Great Lakes. There are many rather unsatis- factory and hazy reports of such occurrences. The earliest of these is recorded by Kalm, who says, in his account of the Passenger Pigeon, that in March, 1740, about a week after the disap- pearance of a great multitude of Pigeons in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, a sea captain named Amies, who arrived at Philadelphia, stated that he had seen the sea covered with dead Pigeons, in some cases for three French miles. Other ship captains, arriving later, corroborated this tale. It was said that from that date no such great multitudes of Pigeons were seen in Pennsylvania. Kalm published this in 1759, but after that date the Pigeons again came to Penn- sylvania in great numbers ; which shows that the drowning of this multitude had no permanent effect on the numbers of the birds. This story in some form has cropped up at intervals ever since. Schoolcraft (1821), while walking along some parts of the shore of Lake Michigan, saw a great number of the skeletons and half-con- sumed bodies of Pigeons, which he says are over- taken often by tempests in crossing the lake, and " drowned in entire flocks." Vast numbers of Eagles and Buzzards were seen feeding upon them. Some of the Pigeons may have been driven by persecution to the Far North to breed, in the lat- ter part of the nineteenth century, and they may have been destroyed by unseasonable storms, for many species are subject to periodical reduction by the elements ; but the whole history of the last thirty years of the existence of the Pas- senger Pigeon goes to prove that the birds were so persistently molested that they finally lost their coherence, were scattered far and wide, and became extinct mainly through constant persecution by man. While they existed in large colonies, the orphaned young were taken care of by their neighbors. This communal habit of feeding preserved the species so long as the birds nested in large colonies ; but when they became scattered the young starved when their parents were killed. The Passenger Pigeon was not a suspicious bird, as birds go : it was easily taken. It 44 BIRDS OF AMERICA reijroduced slowly, laid but few eggs, and, when its innumerable multitudes were reduced and its flocks were dispersed, the end came rapidly. It often is asked how it was possible for man to kill them all. It was not possible, nor was it requisite that he should do so, in order to ex- terminate them. All that was required to bring about this result was to destroy a large part of the young birds hatched each year. Nature cut off the rest. She always eliminates a larsje Photo by R. W. Shufeldt THE LAST PASSENGER PIGEON She died in tlie Cincinnati Zoological Park in 1914 natural increase was practically cut off, and con- stant diminution was assured. Extermination must have resulted under such conditions, even if no man ever killed an adult Passenger Pigeon. The Pigeons were not irnmortal. Even if undis- turbed by man, they " gave up the ghost " in a few years ; but they were not undisturbed. No adequate attempt to jirotect them was made until they practically had disappeared. \\'henever a law looking toward the conservation of these birds was propored in any State, its opponents argued before the legislative committees that the Pigeons " needed no protection " ; that their numbers were so vast, and that they ranged over such a great extent of country, that they were amply able to take care of themselves. This argument defeated all measures that might have given adequate protection to this species. That is why extinction finally came quickly. \\'e did our be.-t to exterminate both old and young, and we succeeded. The explanation is so simple that all talk of " mystery " seems sadly out of place here. Ornithologists believe that the migrations of this Pigeon were made mainly in pursuit of food, and with little reference to the seasons of the year. Undoubtedly, however, the tendency was lo migrate north in the spring and south in the fall, like other birds of passage. Some of the pigeoners say that the Pigeons nested in the southern States in winter ; but of this there is no authentic record. The accounts of the early settlers in Massa- chusetts show that there was a northward migra- tion of Pigeons through New England in March, and tliey sometimes lingered about Hiid- son Bay until December, feeding on the berries of the jtiniper. The roosts of the Pigeons were so extensive and the birds frequenting them were so numerous that it was necessary for them to ily long distances daily in order to secure food enough for their wants. In migration their flight was very high and swift. Audubon esti- mates that they flew a mile a minute, and others have asserted that they sometimes traveled 100 miles an hour. This was probably an share of the young of all creatures. The greater part of the Pigeons taken in summer and fall were young birds. The squabs were sought be- cause they brought a high price in the market. The young when out of the nest were less ex- perienced than the adults, and therefore more easily taken. Sometimes the Pigeons were so harassed that all their nestings were broken up, and few young were raised that season ; thus the In searching for food in a country where it was plentiful, the birds flew low, and, upon reaching good feeding ground, swung in large circles while examining the place. Some flocks were composed of young birds, others were mostly males, and still others almost entirely females. Their roosting places were preferably in large and heavy timber, sometimes in swamps. In TMf'.EONS AND DOVES 45 most of the larger roosts, the trees, undergrowth, and all vegetation on the ground were soon killed by a heavy dci)osit of guano. About sunset the F^igeons in all the country for many miles around began to move toward the roost, and soon after sundown they commenced to arrive in inmiensc numbers, some from a distance of loo miles or more. Birds ])ourc(l in from all directions until after midnight, and left the roost again at sunrise. Audubon says that a messenger whom he sent out from a Pigeon roost reported to him that the uproar of the birds arriving could be heard three miles away. A most remarkable attribute of the Pigeon was its disregard of the presence of human beings in its roosting and nesting places. Any one who entered quietly one of these spots when the birds were there would be surrounded by the unsuspicious creatures in a few minutes. The nests formerly were placed in trees of great height, in some locality near water, where food was plentiful; but after the primeval forests were cut off, the Pigeons nested sometimes in low trees. This contributed to their doom. The best description of the nesting of these birds that I have seen is given by Chief Pokagon, in the Cliautauqitan. He was a full-blooded Indian, and the last Pottawottomi chief of the Pokagon band. He says : "About the middle of May, 1850, while in the fur trade, I was camping on the head waters of the Manistee River in Michigan. One morning on leaving my wigwam I was startled by hearing a gurgling, rumbling sound, as though an army of horses laden with sleigh bells was advancing through the deep forests toward me. As I listened more intently, I concluded that instead of the tramping of horses it was distant thunder ; and yet the morning was clear, calm and beauti- ful. Nearer and nearer came the strange com- mingling sounds of sleigh bells, mixed with the rumbling of an approaching storm. While I gazed in wonder and astonishment, I beheld moving toward me in an unbroken front millions of pigeons, the first I had seen that season. They passed like a cloud through the branches of the high trees, through the underbrush and over the ground, apparently overturning every leaf. Statue-like I stood, half -concealed by cedar boughs. They fluttered all about me, lighting on my head and shoulders ; gently I caught two in my hands and carefully concealed them under my blanket. " I now began to realize they were mating, preparatory to nesting. It was an event which I had long hoped to witness ; so I sat down and carefully watched their movements, amid the greatest tumuli. I tried to understand their strange language, and why they all chatted in concert. In the course of the day the great on- moving mass passed by me, but the trees were still filled with them sitting in i)airs in convenient crotches of the limbs, now and then gently flut- tering their half-spread wings and uttering to their mates those strange, bell-like wooing notes which I had mistaken for the ringing of bells in the distance. " On the third day after, this chattering ceased and all were busy carrying sticks with which they v.-ere building nests in the same crotches of the limbs they had occupied in pairs the day before. On the morning of the fourth day their nests were finished and eggs laid. The hen birds oc- cupied the nests in the morning, while the male birds went out into the surrounding country to feed, returning about 10 o'clock, taking the nests, while the hens went out to feed, returning about 3 o'clock. Again changing nests, the male birds went out the second time to feed, returning at sundown. The same routine was pursued each day until the young ones were hatched and nearly half-grown, at which time all the parent birds left the brooding grounds about daylight. On the morning of the eleventh day after the eggs were laid, I found the nesting grounds strewn with egg shells, convincing me that the young were hatched. In thirteen days more the parent birds left their young to shift for them- selves, flying to the east about sixty miles, when they again nested. The female lays but one egg during the same nesting. " Both sexes secrete in their crops milk or curd with which they feed their young until they are ready to fly, when they stuff them with mast and such other raw material as they themselves eat until their crops exceed their bodies in size, giving to them an appearance of two birds with one head. Within two days after the stuffing they become a mass of fat — "a squab." At this period the parent bird drives them from the nests to take care of themselves, while they fly off within a day or two, sometimes hundreds of miles, and again nest. " It has been well established that these birds look after and take care of all orphan squabs whose parents have been killed or are missing. These birds are long-lived, having been known to live twenty-five years caged. When food is abundant they nest each month in the year." It seems improbable, however, that they bred 46 BIRDS OF AMERICA in winter. The nesting usually occupied four or five weeks. The female, when sitting, never left the nest until the flight of males returned, when she slipped away, just as her mate reached the nest. Thus the eggs were kept covered all the time. The adult birds never ate the nuts and acorns in the immediate vicinity of the nesting place, but went to a distance for their food, and left the mast in the neighborhood for the young to feed on when they came out of the nest. It is said that for miles around there were no cater- pillars or inchworms in the oak woods for several years after a nesting, as the adults secured prac- tically all of them for the young, thereby protect- ing the forests against their insect enemies. W'hen the young were first pushed out of the nest by the parents, they went to the ground, and fed mainly in the lower parts of the woods until they became expert in flying. They passed over the ground, the lower ranks continually flying over those in front, scratching out all the edible material, those flying overhead striking otT the nuts as they flew by. The young birds were able to reproduce their kind in about six months. Chief Pokagon asserts that while the old birds were feeding they always had guards on duty, to give an alarm in case of danger. The watch bird as it took flight beat its wings together in quick succession, with a sound like the roll of a snare drum. Quick as thought each bird re- peated the alarm with a thundering sound, as the flock struggled to rise, leading a novice to imagine that a cyclone was coming. In feeding, the birds were very voracious. They scratched among the leaves and unearthed every nut or acorn, sometimes almost choking in their efforts to swallow an unusually large specimen. During the breeding season they were fond of salty mud and water, and the pigeoners, learning of this, were accustomed to attract the birds to their death by salting down " mud beds," to which the poor Pigeons flocked in multitudes, and over which, when they were assembled, the pigeoners threw their nets. The food of the Pigeons consisted mainly of vegetable matter, except for the grasshoppers, caterpillars and other insects, worms, snails, etc., which they ate, and which they fed to their young. Acorns, beechnuts and chestnuts, with pine and hemlock seeds, were among their prin- cipal staples of supply. They also fed on the seeds of the elm, maple and other forest trees. Buckwheat, hempseed, Indian corn and other grains, cherries, mulberries, hollyberries, hack- berries, wild strawberries, raspberries and huckleberries, and tender shoots of vegetation, all attracted them. They sometimes went to the Barren Grounds in the far North in vast num- bers, to feed on blueberries. They often de- scended upon the fall-sown wheat and rye fields in such numbers that the farmers had to watch their fields, or lose their crops. Oats and peas were favorite foods. No doubt they also fed largely on the seeds of weeds, as the Mourn- ing Doves, Bob-whites, and many other terres- trial feeders do ; but I find no record of this. They were fond of currants, cranberries, and poke berries, and no doubt of many other kinds of berries, and rose hips. We know little of their food habits, for no scientific investigation of their food ever was made. Edward Howe Forbush, in Game Birds, IVild-Fozvl and Shore Birds. MOURNING DOVE Zenaidura macroura carolinensis (Linmcus) A. O. U. Number 316 See Color Plate 42 Other Names. — Carolina Dove ; Wild Dove ; Turtle Dove ; Dove. General Description. — Length, 12}/ inches. Pre- vailing color above, grayish-blue; below, reddish-fawn. Tail, longer than wing, strongly graduated, consisting of 14 relatively narrow and tapering feathers. Color. — Adult Male : Forehead and over eye, fawn color usually paler on front of forehead, passing into dull slate-gray on back of head; hindneck, brownish- gray, the lateral portions (sometimes also lower por- tion) highly glossed with metallic purplish-bronze; back, shoulders, upper tail-coverts, wing-coverts, and inner secondaries, grayish-brown ; the rump similar but usually grayer, passing into slate-grayish laterally ; these secondaries, usually also greater coverts, with a number of rather large square and roundish black spots ; outer secondaries, primaries, primary coverts, neutral-gray, the primaries narrowly edged with white, these edgings PIGEONS AND DOVES 47 broader on outermost quills ; middle pair of tail-feathers similar in color to back, but usually rather grayer, some- times darkening terminally; next pair, grayer with a dusky bar (usually oblique) across middle portion of inner web; third pair, similar but with the dusky (or black) bar more distinct, extending across part of outer web (the bar more or less V-shaped) ; fourth and fifth pairs, with the black bar broader, extending entirely across both webs, and with the gray of ends passing into grayish-white terminally; sixth pair, similar to fifth but ends mostly white; seventh (outermost) pair, similar but with outer web entirely white; general color of under parts reddish-fawn color, deeper (sometimes nearly fawn color) on foreneck and chest, becoming much paler on chin and upper throat, behind passing through light pinkish-cinnamon on abdomen and pink- ish-bulT on anal region to cartridge-lniff on longer under tail-coverts; sides of head, similar in color to forehead but sometimes slightly paler, relieved by a smalt sfot of l'Unk\ ylossrd ii'ilh blue on side of head ; sides and flanks and under wing-coverts, clear bluish- gray ; bill, black, the mouth lake-red, the tumid nasal valves somewhat glaucous ; iris, dark brown ; bare eye space, pale l)lue, tinged above eye with pale green ; legs and feet, lake-red. .Adult Fk.malk: Similar to the adult male l)ut coloration duller ; less reddish lielow. where passing into or tinged with light drab on foreneck and chest ; black spots on secondaries and wing-coverts larger and more numerous, the shoulders sometimes with a few black spots or broad streaks; inetallic gloss on sides of neck more restricted and less brilliant, and black head spot smaller and without blue gloss. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Placed in trees (usually 1 )w down), bushes, cactus, dense brier thickets, or on ground or on cliflF ; a frail structure of twigs, so flat ihat the fact that the eggs do not roll off oftener is remarkable. Kggs : i or 2, white ; 2 and sometimes 3 iiroods ill a season. Distribution. — North America; breeds from British Columbia. Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and south- ern Nova Scotia south throughout the United States and Mexico, and locally in Lower California, and Guatemala; winters from southern Oregon, southern Colorado, northern Ohio, and .Vorth Carolina to Pan- ama; casual in winter in Middle States. ^ m ■i^ i The best-known characteristic of the Mourn- ing Dove is its call — it can hardly be considered a song — which may suggest hopeless sorrow, or the tendercst love and devotion, according to the mood of the listener. Another peculiarity which attaches to the bird is the fact that it is fre- quently mistaken, by untrained observers, for the probably altogether extinct Passenger Pigeon. Indeed, probably all of the " Passenger Pigeons " reported during the past twenty years have been Mourning Doves : this, at least, has so often proved to be the case that ornithologists take little interest nowadays in announcements that a flock of the Pigeons has been seen. MOURNING DOVE (j Dat. size) It is frequently mistaken for the extinct Passenger Pigeon Drawing by R. I. Brasher The nest of this bird is an astonishingly poor makeshift, composed chiefly of a handful of twigs thrown together so loosely that the eggs are in danger of rolling out of it, or falling through the interstices. Neither the hopeless woe nor the love-sick hypothesis nor both seem to account for this slovenliness. Very likely it the birds employed some of the time and ardor they usually put into billing and cooing in trying to construct a safe and substantia! home, the result would be a better nest : but after all their poor workmanship is probably due pritnarily to the fact that both their bills and their feet are ill- adapted to nest-building. A peculiarity by means of which the Mourn- ing Dove may certainly be identified, is the sharp whistling of its wings while it is in flight. An- other distinctive habit of the bird, especially during the mating and nesting season, is that of the male in rising from its perch, with violent flapping of wings (which, like those of the do- 48 BIRDS OF AMERICA mesticated pigeon, seem to strike over his back), and flj'ing at a sharp angle to a height of a hundred feet or more, when the flight ceases and the bird returns to the same or another perch, by sailing on motionless wings which are usually held at a downward angle, like those of a gliding Snipe or Sandpiper. This performance seems to be purely a sexual manifestation intended to im- press the female. The breeding habits of this bird present sev- eral peculiarities. It is one of the earliest of spring arrivals, its appearance being about con- bird's manner of feeding her young, which is done by regurgitation; that is, the young take their food, mixed with a light-colored fluid called " pigeon's milk," from the crop of the parent. The young are slow to develop their power of flight, and so it happens that the mother bird is often seen sitting crosswise on the nest with the heads and tails of her infants protruding on either side of her body. Apparently because of the strong and swift flight of the Mourning Dove, it was for many years considered a " game " bird in several of Photograph by A. A. Allen A MOURNING DOVE BROODING ITS YOUNG temporaneous with the Robin. Bluebird, and Meadowlark. The breeding period — within the bird's normal northern habitat — extends virtu- ally from May to September. Incubation occu- pies about two weeks and three or even four broods are reared in a season. An Ohio observer reports that he has found the birds incubating in that State during every month excepting De- cember and January, and that he has found fresh eggs in a nest still occupied by birds not mature enough to fly. Another peculiarity is the parent the States, especially in the South. Under the Federal Migratory Bird Law of 191 3, however, it was classed as a migratory bird, and in that character was given the protection to which it is entitled. George Gladden. The Mourning Dove is one of the most useful of birds ; it feeds extensively on weed seeds, frequently eating insects, especially grasshoppers, but on the whole preferring a vegetable diet. It has been accused of injuring ripening peas but this accusation has not been substantiated. PICtEOXS ax I) DOVES 49 Photograph by C. M, Oswalt Courtesy of OutiriK Pubhshing Co. NEST AND EGGS OF MOURNING DOVE The nest is an astonishingly poor makeshift, composed chiefly of a handful of twigs loosely thrown together WHITE-WINGED DOVE Melopelia asiatica ( Linncciis) A. O. U. Number 319 Other Name. — Singing Dove. General Description. — Length, 12 inches. Prevail- ins color above, gray ; below, brown on breast and gray on abdomen. Tail shorter than wing, moderately rounded, consisting of 12 feathers, these broader termin- ally : wing rather large and pointed. Color. — Head, fawn color, paler in front and pass- ing into a much darker hue (sometimes approaching dark purple-drab) on crown and back of head; hind- neck, similar in color to back of head but somewhat lighter; back, shoulders, and wing-coverts, plain deep huffy-brown, light sepia, or umber; the middle pair of tail-feathers (sometimes longer upper tail-coverts also) similar, sometimes more decidedly brown ; outer wing- coverts, mostly white forming a coit.<:f>ieuoi- rarely — creatures which are disabled or are dying of disease or injuries. They range from the tropics northward to temperate America — in the case of the common Turkey Vulture — and include the great Condor of the Andes, which is exceeded in wing extent only by the California Vulture — now almost extinct — and the Wandering Albatross. The bill is stout, blunt, and hooked; the talons are dull and only sHghtly curved, and the feet are clumsily formed and not adapted to seizing and killing or holding prey, as are those of the Eagles, Hawks, and Owls. The wings are broad and have eleven primaries and from twelve to twenty-five secondaries. The tail is rounded or even with from twelve to fourteen quill feathers. The head and long neck of the adults usually are bare, though in the King Vulture a short down covers the neck and extends to the crown of the head. This bare skin is rough and is frequently brightly colored. The eyes usually are conspicuous. The plumage and size of the sexes are alike. The Vultures walk when on the ground instead of hopping. Their attitude gives the impression of listlessness. The \'ultures build no nests, but lay one, two, or three eggs in rock cavities, caves, hollow trees or stumps, or on the ground. The eggs, may be greenish, white, or [,s.^l 54 BIRDS OF AMERICA bufif and with or without markings of gray or reddish-brown. The young are naked when hatched, but very soon they are covered with a white or buff down. They are fed sometimes by regurgitation; and the adults have a habit, when frightened or angered, of vomiting exceedingly offensive smelling matter. Turkey Vultures and Black Vultures sometimes roost in company, but speaking generally the Vultures are not gregarious. All Vultures are famous for their majestic flight and for their marvelously keen eyesight, which, rather than their sense of smell, enables them to discover their food. By making perfect use of the air currents one of these great birds will mount for thousands of feet, or soar for hours at a time, without once flapping its wings. CALIFORNIA VULTURE Gymnogyps calif ornianus (SItmv) A. O. U. Number 3.24 Other Names. — California Condor; Queleli. Description. — Length, 4 to 4'4 feet; spread of wings, 9 to 1 1 feet. Wings, long, folding beyond end of square tail ; head and neck, bare ; skin, smooth, yellow or yellowish-orange and red ; plumage, sooty-blackish commencing over shoulders with a semi-rufif of linear feathers, those underneath of similar character but less clearly defined ; the feathers of upper parts with browner tips; wings and tail, black; outer webs of greater wing-coverts and secondaries grayish ; wing- coverts and outer secondaries edged with whitish ; u)iJcr 'a'iii!/-cin'crts, pure white; bill, dark brown chang- ing gradually to dull reddish on cere; iris, deep red; feet, horn with a patch of red on knees. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A recess among rocks in most inaccessible mountains, more rarely in hollow of a stump or tree trunk. Eggs : I or 2, plain greenish- white, unmarked. Distribution. — Coast ranges of California from Santa Clara County south to northern Lower Cali- fornia; casual north to southern Oregon and east to Arizona ; formerly north to Columbia River. The California Vulture is as large as the Con- dor of the Andes and when full-grown will measure nine to eleven feet from tip to tip of the wings when they are spread. It differs from its South American brother in dress. Its head and neck are bare and brilliantly colored in orange and red. Its coat is plain brown or blackish. It will weigh from twenty to twenty- five pounds. The Condor seldom, if ever, attacks living creatures ; it always plays a waiting game. It never carries food in its talons, because its foot is not made like the Eagle's for gripping and carrying prey. No bird is gentler in disposi- tion or more affectionate in his home life. The range of the California Condor is more restricted than that of any other bird of prey. The few left in the wild state live almost entirely in the coastal motmtainotis regions of southern California and a part of Lower California. Un- less careful protection is given these few Condors remaining in the these wild mountainous regions, this largest of flying birds will soon cease to be a part of the natural history of California. If you were to start on a hunt for the Cali- fornia Condor, you might search for years, as we did, without success. In the whole world's collections, less than a dozen of these birds are to be seen alive. In the various museums of the world, one can find almost twice as many eggs of the Great Auk, a bird now extinct, as of this Condor. The main cause which has been given for the decrease in Condors seems to be that when stock- raising became common in California years ago, the rangers were compelled, in order to secure pasture during the dry months, to drive their herds back into the more remote mountainous parts. Here they invaded the retreats of panthers, grizzlies, and coyotes. These preyed upon the calves and sheep and did considerable damage. The quickest and best device for get- ting rid of these animals was by baiting car- casses with poison. The Condors came to feed upon the poisoned animals and large numbers of the big birds were undoubtedly killed in this way. William L. Finlev. .'»■ Photo by W. L. Fialey and H. T. Bohlman A PAIR OF CALIFORNIA VULTURES For years Mr. Finley and Mr. Bohlman searched for living birds of this species. They were rewarded by obtaining this remarkable picture [55] 56 BIRDS OF AMERICA TURKEY VULTURE Cathartes aura septentrionalis IVied A, O. U. Number 325 See Color Plate 43 Other Names. — Carrion Crow; Turkey Buzzard. Description. — Length. 2'/2 feet; spread of wings, 6 feet. Tail, long, and rounded ; wings, when folded, reaching to or beyond the tip of tail; head and upper part of neck, entirely bare or with only a few bristles, and with skin deeply corrugated. Adults : Head and upper neck of a reddish tinge and some shades of blue and white; neck and upper parts, blackish glossed with green or purple ; beneath, dull brownish-black ; feathers above, broadly edged with dull-grayish brown ; secondaries edged with gray ; shafts of wing- and tail-feathers, pale brown or yel- lowish white; bill, dull whitish; iris, brown; feet, flesh-colored. Nest and Eggs. — Eccs : Commonly 2, sometimes i, and very rarely 3 ; laid, from February to June, in a cave, a cavity between rocks, in a hollow log, or on the ground ; white or creamy, variously spotted with laven- der or purplish brown blotches. Distribution. — From southern Lower California and northern Mexico north to southern British Colum- bia, Saskatchewan, western Manitoba, northern Min- nesota, southern Ontario, western and southern New York, and New Jersey; casual in Wisconsin, Michigan, northern Ontario, and New Brunswick ; winters throughout most of its regular range in the East, but further west retires to California, Nebraska, and the Ohio valley. The Turkey Vulture is ugly to the last degree, except in flight, but it is an invaluable health- protector in warm latitudes, where it exists on all forms of carrion, being guided to its food by a sense of sight — not smell. What it lacks in beauty and grace afoot it compensates for a-wing. Its circling form, on motionless, widely out- stretched pinions, is seldom absent from the skyscape of its habitat as it soars in great circles, scanning the ground below. For hours at a time, in fair weather, it will remain on the wing. There can be little question that its eyesight is f-^ -\.-r.<;-..:?T^'v-- - I'hr.l., l,v \V I, Fmlrv :m\ 11 T li.ihl HALF-GROWN TURKEY VULTURE He is ugly to the last degree except in flight VULTURES 57 many times more powerful than human vision. Suddenly it will appear from nowhere in the sky above, coming directly downward to a dead ani- mal no larger than a cat which it has seen, although it was out of sight itself. If one de- scends, others are discovered shooting in long slants toward the spot ; these in turn are followed by others until all the X'ultures which were in the air for many miles around have congregated at the feast. "The food of the Turkey Huzzard is mainly carrion, but it also eats snakes, toads, and prob- ably rats, mice, and occasionally young birds that chance to fall in its wav. It does not, how- ever, attack poultry or game birds, nor does it regularly search for and destroy the nests of other birds. On the whole it is a beneficial species and should be rigorously ])rotected." ( Barrows.) At Cocoanut Grove, Florida, we amused our- selves by catching some of these ungainly birds with a lasso laid on the ground and encircling some bait. A number fought to escape ; others simulated death, remaining in ;m apparently un- conscious condition for ten minutes at a stretch. We decorated them with paper collars and cufTs and a few bits of ribbon, then released them and they flew aloft like aerial mountebanks. R. 1. Brasher. BLACK VULTURE Catharista urubu ( i'icillot) A. O. U. Xumber 326 Other Names. — Black Buzzard: Carrion Crow; up back of head in a point Black Scavenger. Description. — Length. 4'/: feet. Head, naked ; ;~ inches ; spread of wings, feathers of neck extended wings, when folded. lo not reach to the tip of the tail ; compared with the Turkey \'uUure. its tail is decidedly shorter, wing- strokes more frequent, is built more stunipily and weighs BLACK VtJLTtniES On the street in Charleston, South Carolina 58 BIRDS OF AMERICA more. Adults (sexes alike) : Head and a part of the neck, covered with a black wrinkly and lumpy skin ; general color of entire plumage, blackish; shafts of primaries, white fading to dull gray at base; bill, black- ish, the tip, dull yellowish-white; iris, brownish-hazel; legs, grayish-white with black claws. Nest and Eggs. — Eggs : i to 3, laid on the ground under the protection of logs or bushes or in rock cavi- ties ; pale greenish or bluish-white marked irregularly round the larger end with various shades of brown or brownish-purple ; deposited from March to May. Distribution. — From western Te.xas, Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, and southeastern Virginia, south through the Southern States, Mexico, and Central America to fiouth- ern South America ; casual in Ohio, New York, Maine, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. To the visitor for the first time in the South the appearance of that dusky scavenger the Black Vulture, calmly walking around in the streets as domesticated and as unafraid as the English Sparrow of northern cities, strikes him as a little odd. The careful disposal of dead animals, so neces- sary in the North, is not required within bounds of this bird's habitat. Anywhere that animals are slaughtered will be found numbers of these Vul- tures waiting patiently on fences roofs, or any convenient perch, for their share of ofifal. They are carefully protected, a heavy fine being im- posed by law for their destruction. So universal is the recognition of their services that even without any lawful protection it is doubtful if any would be destroyed. They are easy to distinguish, even at a distance and in the air, from the Turkey Vulture by the short squarish tail and more blocky outlines. Nearby the white under wing-coverts are distinc- tive. EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES Order Raptorcs; suborder Falconcs : family Biiteonidcc HE Eagles, Hawks, and Kites comprise the family Butconidar. They are diurnal birds of prey. Like the Owls, the Falcons, and the Vultures, they have strongly hooked bills with a cere or waxlike membrane around the base. Their feet have three toes permanently pointed forward and one turned backward; the claws or talons are long, curved, extremely acute, and flexibly jointed to the toes. The tarsus is shorter than the tibia, scaled in front, and partly feathered. The leg is well feathered, usually below the knee joint, and the long feathers (the "flag") are well developed. The wings are ample and usually somewhat rounded in shape. The tail is variable as to relative length and shape but usually contains twelve feathers. In general appearance these birds are heavy. Their prey is killed by the sharp claws and torn to pieces with the bill. The Buteonidcc are found both in the eastern and in the western hemisphere. In the United States and Canada are twenty species of regular or accidental occurrence. Many of the species included in this family return to the same neighborhood and often to the same nest, year after year, and some are known to mate for life. They breed slowly, rearing but one brood a year, though, if the first set of eggs be destroyed, another will be laid. The period of incubation is about four weeks; the young when hatched are covered or partially covered with down, but before they leave the nest they are fully feathered. The food habits and the economic value of these rapacious birds are thus summarized by Dr. A. K. Fisher: " The young grow slowly and need a relatively large amount of food. To satisfy their hunger requires constant foraging on the part of the parents, and the strain of rearing the family is probably twice that of any of the other land birds. Even the adults are large eaters, gorging to the utmost when the opportunity presents; and as digestion is very rapid and assimilation perfect, a great quantity of food in relation to the body weight is consumed every day. Hawks and Owls often swallow their smaller victims entire, and tear the larger ones into several pieces, swallowing each fragment as it is detached. After s B 1 59] 6o BIRDS OF AMERICA the nutritious portion of the food has been absorbed, the indigestible parts, such as hair, feathers, scales, bones, and other hard parts, are rolled into a solid ball by the action of the muscles of the stomach. These masses, known as ' pellets,' are regurgitated before fresh food is taken. The pellets contain ever^-thing necessary to identify the food. To the wholly beneficial class belong the large Rough-legged Hawk, its near relative, the Squirrel Hawk or Ferruginous Rough-leg, and the four Kites — the White-tailed Kite, Mississippi Kite, Swallow-tailed Kite, and Everglade Kite. The chiefly beneficial class contains a majority of our Hawks and Owls, and includes the following: Marsh Hawk, Harris's Hawk, Red-tailed Hawk, Red-shouldered Hawk, Short-tailed Hawk, Sennett's White-tailed Hawk, Swainson's Hawk, Short-wing Hawk, Broad-winged Hawk, Mexican Black Hawk, Mexican Goshawk, Sparrow Hawk, and Audubon's Caracara. The class in which the harm- ful and beneficial qualities balance includes the Golden Eagle, Bald Eagle, Pigeon Hawk, Richardson's Pigeon Hawk, Prairie Falcon, and Great Horned Owl. The harmful class com- prises the Gyrfalcons, Duck Hawk, Sharp-shinned Hawk, Cooper's Hawk, and Goshawk." SWALLOW-TAILED KITE Elanoides forficatus (Linncrus) A. O. U. Number 327 Other Names. — Swallow-tailed Hawk; Swallow-tail; Fork-tailed Kite ; Snake Hawk. General Description. — Length, 24 inches. Head and under parts, wliite; upper parts, black. Wings, long and reaching nearly to the tip of the deeply forked tail; feet, stout but very short, the tarsus feathered halfway in front ; talons, short, well-curved, scooped out, and sharp-edged on the under surface. Outer tail-feathers about 8 inches longer than middle-pair. Color. — Adults: Cro'cvii, head, and neck all round, and entire under parts including under zviny-coverts, pure snozvy white; back, wings, and tail, glossy-black with varying luster, principally violet and greenish-blue ; shoulder feathers and lesser wing-coverts with a pro- nounced bronzy cast ; bill, bluish black ; cere, pale bluish ; feet, pale bluish-green with light-colored claws. Young: Similar to aduUs, but with head and neck narrowly streaked with blackish, and most of dark flight feathers edged and tipped with white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually in the top of tall trees near water courses; composed of dry twigs, sticks, hay, and occasionally moss. Eggs : 2 or 3, sometimes 4, white or bufify. boldly blotched and speckled, chiefly around the larger end in handsome patterns, with rich chestnut-brown and cinnamon. Distribution. — North and South America ; breeds locally from southeastern Saskatchewan, northern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, southern Indiana, and South Carolina south through eastern Mexico and Central America to Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay ; acci- dental west to New Mexico and Colorado and north to northern Wisconsin, Ontario, New York, Maine, Mass- achusetts, and in England ; casual in the Greater Antilles; winters south of the United States. In Florida Everglades where the Miami River rises, I had the pleasure and satisfaction of studying those remarkable birds the Swallow- tailed Kites. Gifted with extraordinary wing and tail surfaces they live almost entirely in the air, floating, soaring, and circling with all the buoyancy and dash of their minor prototypes, the Barn Swallows, to whom they bear a singular resemblance in shape, color, action, and super- lative wing power — in fact in nearly everything but size. The three birds I observed were feeding on small snakes, apparently water moccassins, which were neatly snatched from their lurking places in the reeds and devoured on the wing. This aerial feeding was gracefully performed by a forward thrust of the talons holding the food, a mouthful being taken by bending the head suddenly downward. One of the birds carried aloft a small alligator, perhaps a foot long, but the morsel proved too obdtirate and was dropped. At times they made long downward sweeps like the drop of Nighthawks, apparently in a spirit of play. No other North American bird approaches the Swallow-tail in the grace and beauty of its flight ; the Duck Hawk alone equals it in speed. The former conveys the impression of lightness in tlie air ; the latter, of power and impetuosity. Incubation starts in March in the southern EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 6l parts of its range and it may be as late as June in the northern districts. liefore mij^ratiiiLj these Kites asseml)le in small companies, circlinsj slowly in ascending sjiirals until sometimes out of eye-range like the ma- neuvers of the Red-tailed Hawks before leav- ing us in the autumn. Their call note is a liigli- pitched shrill ke wee wee, the first note short, somewhat like the crv of the Broad-winged Hawk. The Swallow-tail feeds upon snakes, grass- hoppers, was|) grubs, caterjiillars, lizards, frogs and other small reptiles and he is not known to attack birds or (piadrupeds. R. I. Brasher. Dravring by R. I. Brasher SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (I nat. size) The most graceful in flight of all North American birds WHITE-TAILED KITE Elanus leucurus ( ricillot) A. O. U. Number 328 Other Name. — Black-shoulHerecl Kite. General Description. — Length. 17 inches. Upper part.s, light blui.sh-ash ; under parts and tail, white. Wings, iiointed and about twice as long as tail and when closed reach nearly to end of tail ; two outer wing- quills notched ; feathers of wings, broad and tips obtuse: feet, very small; tarsus, feathered half-way down in front; claws, small, little curved, and not grooved beneath. Color. — E.xcept top of head and tail, upper parts, light bluish-ash ; lower parts, top of head, and tail, with the exception of the two center feathers, pure white; 62 BIRDS OF AMERICA two center tail-feathers, a lighter ash than black ; a spot in front of eye formed by bristly feathers and extend- ing narrowly above the eye, and a large patch on the shoulder embracing lesser and middle wing-coverts, deep black: bill and claws, black; cere and feet, yellow- ish-orange; iris, deep carmine. Young: Crown, nape, and upper parts generally thickly marked with broad streaks of dusky brown tinged with rufous; shoulders, umber-brown tipped with rusty ; all wing-feathers, narrowly tipped with white; tail-feathers with a bar of dark ashy, near the tip ; below, tinged with rusty and pale yellow-brown with elongated wedge-shaped spots of umber and blackish. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : In the tops of trees, pref- erably live oaks; made of small twigs and larger sticks and lined with grass. Eggs: 3 to 5, dull whitish, so heavily marked over entire surface with blotches of red and mahogany-brown as usually to obscure the ground color. Distribution. — North and South America ; breeds in California, Te.xas, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Florida; casual in southern Illinois, Louisiana, Missis- sippi, and Alabama; winters in California and Florida and south rarely to Guatemala ; resident in South America from Argentina and Chile to Venezuela ; accidental in Michigan. All the Kites are birds of marked individuality and their identification in Hfe is not difficult. The white square tail and black shoulders of the White-tailed Kite are quite distinctive field marks. Its favorite haunts are along the borders of streams and marshes, where it frequently a plummet. Unlike the Swallow-tailed Kite, this species does not confine its food to insects and reptiles but preys sometimes on small birds and frequently on quadrupeds, especially field mice. Chipmunks, lizards, snakes, and grasshoppers are found on its menu. Drawing by R. I. Brasher WHITE-TAILED KITE (i nat. size) A fine flyer and a beautiful bird of the South and West perches on some tree overlooking its hunting grounds. Its method of hunting is not unlike that of the Marsh Hawk — crossing over the fields or hover- ing almost stationary aloft like a .Sparrow Hawk when it sees its game and dropping upon it like These birds are less likely to desert disturbed nests than the Swallow-tailed Kites. They utter plaintive calls of anxiety while their home and its neighborhood are under investigation. The nest is placed on a tree, usually near the water. K. I. Brasher. MISSISSIPPI KITE Ictinia mississippiensis ( IVilson) A. O. U. Number 329 Other Name.— Blue Kite. Description. — Length, 14 inches. Plumage, bluish- gray. Two outer primaries notched on inner web, next two with edge cut away but less abruptly ; wings and tail, moderate in length ; feet, short and stout ; tarsus, scantily covered with feathers about half-way down in front ; web partially connecting middle and outer toes ; claws, stout and much curved ; bill, small and sturdy ; its upper cutting edge almost toothed. Color. — Adults : Front of head, pure silvery white EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 63 shading into pale bluish-gray and this color (,'rading imperceptibly into the dark bluish-yray of the entire ii])per and lower iiliiniagt- ; lores, eyelids and cere black; gape of mouth, orange; lesser wing-coverts, primaries, and upper tail-coverts, darker bluish-gray (almost black), the primaries tinged with chestnut rufous at base of iimcr and outer webs; tips of the secondaries, silvery white; taii, nearly pure black; bill, black; feet orange-yellow; iris, deep red. Young: Head, neck, and lower parts, dull yellowish-white, each feather with a long oval spot of blackish-lirown, more reddish-brown on lower portion ; chin, throat, and a broad stripe over eye, white ; ui)per parts, brownish- black, the feathers narrowly edged with yellowish- white; primary-coverts, secondaries, and primaries, sharply margined on ends with white; tail, black with three bands of more slaty tint, and corresponding rows of white spots on inner webs. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In high tree-top; usually an old nest of some other species remodeled with additional material and lined with Spanish moss or green leaves. Eggs: 2 or 3, pale bhiish-green, usually uimiarked but sometimes with faint spots or stains. Distribution. — Southern Kansas, Iowa, Illinois, southern huiiana, and South Carolina south to Texas and Florida; winters in Florida and southern Texas and south rarely to Guatemala ; accidental in Colorado, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. Its uniform bluish-gray plumage, with darker wings and tail, easily distinguishes the Missis- sippi Kite in life. This compact, well-built bird possesses much more courage and spirit than others of its kin- dred. Only the Swallow-tailed Kite surpasses it in thght power, but it is stronger and much more determined than that species. Its aerial performances are quite up to the Kite standard; it soars with motionless pinions in great circles, sweeps or dashes with vigor and grace, or hovers in the air watching for its humble quarry. It is a tireless flyer. Although the almost toothed bill indicates an approach to falcon traits, it confines its captures to lizards, small snakes, frogs, grasshoppers, and particularly to a large species of beetle belonging to the cicada family. This latter it deftly picks from tree branches without ceasing its flight. Its food is eaten on the wing after the manner of the Swallow-tailed Kite. R. 1. Brasher. EVERGLADE KITE Rostrhamus sociabilis ( Vicillot) .\. O. U. Xumber 3J0 Other Name. — Snail Hawk. General Description. — Length, 18 inches. Plumage, bluish-gray. Five outer primaries notched on inner webs ; upper section of bill, lengthened and hooked. Color.— Adults : Prevailing color, dark bluish-gray blackening on secondaries, primaries, and tail and with a tinge of brownish on wing-coverts and feathers of neck and head with a bluish-green shade; base of tail with upper and under-coverts, white increasing on tail in extent from the center to outsid,-; feathers ; tail, tipped with a band of pale gray about an inch wide; bill and claws, black: base of bill, cere, and feet, bright orange; iris, red. Young: Above, brownish-black with a chalky cast on back. Each feather rather broadly tipped with yellowish-rufous; crown and sides and back of head longitudinally streaked with the same; line over eye, sides of head and lower parts, dull ocher ; throat and cheeks, streaked with dusky ; other lower parts thickly marked with elongated spots of brownish- black ; upper tail-coverts, white with black shaft lines; lower tail-coverts unmarked; tail with basal third white and a terminal band of brownish-ash. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In a bush, small tree, or clump of grass ; a flat structure of sticks, grasses, old stalks, and leaves and lined with a few dried heads of saw-grass, the whole rather carelessly put together. Eggs : 2 or 3, dingy white, irregularly splashed, spotted, or blotched with yellow-brown, light olive-brown, and dark sepia. Distribution. — Tropical Florida. Cuba. eastern Mexico, Central America, and eastern South America to Argentina; migratory in northern Florida. The formation of the bill of the Everglade Kite enables it to extract from its shell the fresh-water snail (Pomiis dcpressits) on which it feeds almost exclusivelv. This snail is very abundant in the shallow lagoons of the Everglades, and this Kite's distribution in the United States is confined to that region. The birds usually resort to some eminence in 64 BIRDS OF AMERICA the " hammock " as a feeding station ; to these spots the delicacies are carried, the snail dex- terously removed from its armor, and the empty shell left with others. Amid the wastes of saw- grass, palmetto, and cypress, inhabited only by a remnant of the Seminole tribe of Indians, may be found heaped-up mounds of these empty shells. On the corduroy road built by General Taylor during the Seminole war and which extends into the almost impassable area of the 'glades west of where the town of Palm Beach now stands, I found several of these curious shell mounds, but I saw only one pair of birds. They were very tame, permitting me to approach within thirty feet before they left their perch in a cypress and swept out over the " prairies." Their flight was like that of the Marsh Hawk and the simi- larity was accentuated by the white band at base of the tail, R. I. Brasher. MARSH HAWK Circus Hudson A. O. U. Number 331 Harrier ; Marsh Harrier ; Blue ius ( LiiUKCUs) See Color Plates 43, 48 Other Names. Hawk (aduhj ; Mouse Hawk; Frog Hawk; Bog- trotter ; White-rumped Hawk. General Description. — Length, 19 inches; spread of wings, 45 to 5J inches. Males have the fore and upper parts light ashy, and abdomen white ; females are dark umber-brown above, and brownish-white below. Both sexes have the face encircled with an imperfect ruflf, somewhat as in the Owls. Color. — Adult Male: In perfect feather, head, neck, breast and upper parts, pale light ashy ; rest of under parts, pure white with a few drop-shaped rusty spots ; in most specimens there is a dusky wash on back, shoulders, and secondaries ; five outer primaries, blackish ; all primaries and secondaries with large white areas at base of iimer webs; tail, bluish-ash banded with 5 or 6 obscure dusky bars, the terminal one darkest, and mottled with white at base of feathers; ufpcr tail- covcrts, pure white. Adult Female : Upper parts, dark umber-brown ; feathers of head and neck edged laterally with yellowish-rufous ; lores, line over and line below eye, dull yellowish-white with a dusky stripe between them running back from the rear angle of the eye; lesser wing-coverts, indented with pale rufous; tail, deep umber crossed by 6 or 7 regular but obscure bands of blackish, the lateral feathers being lighter; sides of head, dull rufous faintly streaked with dark brown ; the facial disk, pale cream color also streaked with dark brown ; chin and throat, plain dull yellowish- white ; beneath, variable shades of dull white to brown- ish-yellow, thickly streaked with broad longitudinal stripes of dark umber-brown more numerous laterally; i i ■ V 1 1 i 0^ ^< k. i F^-V ' - > |4 ■ft ""«f P 1^; Mr !^ w Bip'^tfMSife. /jfi^ , ' i r^ ^^ l'^A^\.JUi l «* At A Sj. =u-r ■»■ - "^ r^Si- --."^-'y - /'J S^W'^ / "^;-.J ^v J m t—^^BiiB w X. IpTX ■"C>d» \^%- ■ ■ "■ ^r -^' '' ^ y ^vj y ~ f . .^ < - l-'hotograph by A. A. Alien A MALE MARSH HAWK AT ITS NEST IN THE MARSHES EAGLES. HAWKS, AND KITES 65 uft''' '"'' coverts, ti'hitc. Young: Similar to adult female but darker everywhere and with l)ut four dark l)ands on tail. Nest and Eggs. — Nkst: On the ground in a tangle of weeds or grassy hummocks; neatly constructed, for a Hawk, of fine dried marsh grass; rather Indky. a foot or more in diameter. Kggs : 2 to 9, but usually from 4 to 6, dull white, faintly tinged with a greenish or bluish shade; no characteristic spots but often blotched with a very pale brown and other neutral-colored tints. Distribution. — North America ; breeds from north- eastern Siberia, northwestern Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, central Kcewatin, northern Quebec, and Prince Edward Island south to the southern border of the United States; winters from southern British Columbia, Colorado, Iowa, the Ohio Valley, and New Vork (occasionally Massachusetts) south to the Bahamas, Cuba, and Colombia. The Marsh Hawk is a bird of very wide dis- tribution in tlie United States, being found in nearly all open localities. Slowly and steadily with a gliding flight the Harrier quarters back and forth across the tields with the care and precision of a well-trained pointer dog. Not a square yard is overlooked. Suddenly the forward flis^dit is checked with almost a back somersault and as part in rearing the young and are very courageous in defending the home from intruders, especially after the eggs are hatched. In the spring, Marsh Hawks are seen always in pairs; but after the young are able to fly they generally hunt in family parties, and later in the season twenty to fifty iiidividu.als will flock together. Photograph by H. K. Job (ourtesy of Outing Fubhshing Co. NEST AND YOUNG OF MARSH HAWK abruptly as though he had run into a wall ; a short interval of hovering, then a descent that as often misses as captures the quarry below. When caught the prey is devoured on the spot. The courting manetivers of the male above the female are interesting. Sweeping in great semi-circles, gradually lessening in diameter, he stops suddenly on the top of a swoop, closes his wings, drops, turns head over tail, drops again, turns over and swings upward from the last somersault, just clear of the ground, on another ecstatic performance. These wild movements are usuallv executed in a silence unbroken except for the sound of rushing wings. Both parents take The food of the Marsh Hawk varies with the season and with local conditions. In some parts of the country it is principally birds, and in others it is exclusively small quadrupeds, and of these field mice are the favorites. An average pair rearing young would destroy in the neighbor- hood of 1000 field mice during the nesting period. If we place a value of two cents on each mouse, which is a very conservative estimate, they would be worth twenty dollars for that short period, to a farmer, and more if he owned an orchard of any size. Rabbits, tree squirrels, ground squirrels, lizards, snakes, and frogs are found on the menu of this bird. 66 BIRDS OF AMERICA SHARP-SHINNED HAWK Accipiter velox (PVilson) A. O. U. Xumber ^2 See Color Plate 44 Other Names. — Pigeon Hawk; Sparrow Hawk; Bird Hawk; Chicken Hawk; Bullet Hawk; Little Blue Darter. General Description. — Length; male, ii inches; female, 12 to 14 inches. Spread of wings, 23 to 27 inches. Color above, dark bluish-slate; below, white. Tail, square or slightly notched at tip ; five outer prima- ries notched on inner webs. Color. — Adults : Head, nape, back, shoulders, wings, rump, and upper tail-coverts, dark bluish-slate; pri- maries and tail, more brownish ; the tail barred by four well-defined bands of brownish-black, the last sub- terminal and broader than the rest, the first concealed by the upper coverts; feathers of back of head, snowy white beneath the surface but showing when the feathers are erected; side of head, pale rufous; lores, cheeks, chin, throat and lower parts, pure white ; chin, throat, and cheeks, marked with fine blackish shaft streaks ; chest, abdomen, sides, flanks, and elongated leg feathers with numerous traverse broad bars of reddish rufous, these bars centrally heart-shaped and rather narrower than the white ones ; on the sides the rufous predominates, the bars broadly arrowhead-shaped, con- nected along shafts; lower tail-coverts, pure white; bill, dark horn color; iris, cere, and feet, yellow; claws. black. Young: .'\bove, umber-brown ; feathers of head, edged with dull light rufous; feathers of rest of upper parts bordered with the same color; the shoulders and rump showing roundish spots of white: tail as in adult but more brownish ; below, dull white, tawny or yellowish, boldly striped lengthwise with dark umber or reddish-brown ; feathers, generally black-shafted ; sides of head and neck more narrowly streaked; broad, light stripe over eye. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually in a conifer, rarely on a ledge of rock; constructed of small sticks with or without a lining of leaves or bark; remark- ably large for the size of the bird. Eggs: 4 or 5, dull bluish or greenish-white, boldly marked with large spots and blotches of different shades of brown, some- times inclined to form a wreath around larger end, sometimes evenly distributed ; occasionally reduced to small spots or so thickly placed as almost to obscure the ground tint. Distribution. — North .'\merica ; breeds nearly throughout the United States and Canada from north- western Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, central Quebec, and Newfoundland south- ward ; winters from British Columbia, Colorado, Iowa, northern Ohio, and Massachusetts south to Panama. Although the Sharp-shinned Hawk has a bod}' but httle larger than a Robin's, this relentless buccaneer, like his larger relative, the Cooper's Hawk, fully upholds the traditions of Hawks for Photo by H. K. Job A NESTFUL OF BABY SHARP-SHINNED HAWKS destructiveness. Fortunately the persistent cam- paign of education, teaching the difference be- tween " good " and " bad " birds of this family, is having its effect, and agriculturists are realiz- ing that but few birds of prey are more harmful than beneficial. Opinion is gradually crystalliz- ing into the conviction that but three Hawks de- serve destruction — this species, the Cooper's Hawk and the Goshawk. There are individuals of other species who acquire a taste for poultry and it may become necessary to eliminate a par- ticular individual, but the wholesale destruction of Hawks brings punishment on ignorance by an increase of quadrtiped and insect pests. This murderous little villain will destroy all small birds unforttmate enough to live within its hunting grounds. At times it seems to " see red," attacking with blind fury birds much larger than itself. I saw one tackle a Screech Owl and have no dotibt he would have killed it had there been no interference, handicapped as the Owl was by daylight. Quick as he is, the Flicker often escapes his onslaught by dodging around a limb, but is caught if attempting flight. A family of six young Flickers were killed, one after the other, because experience had not taught them to hug the branch ; the Hawk's swift plunges frightened them into flight, and the little demon nailed them before they had gone ten feet! R. I. Brasher. Courtesy of the New York State Mus.'um Plate 44 COOPER'S HAWK Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) IMMATURE FEMALE All i nnt. size SHARP-SHINNED HAWK Accipiter rc/ox (Wilson) ADULT MALE EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 67 'I"lu' Shar])-shinned Hawk, a miniature of Cooper's Hawk, is fully as (icslructive to bird life as its larger cousin. Althou.tjh rarely attack- ing full-grown poultry, it is very ])artial to chickens and often almost exterminates early broods which are allowed tn run at large. No birds, from the size of Doves, Robins, and Flickers to the smallest Warblers and Titmice, are safe from its attacks. In examinations of the stomachs of this Hawk the remains of nearly fifty species of birds were recognized, and the list is of so much interest that it is given here: Arizona Quail, Mourning Dove, Downy Wood- pecker. Red-shafted Flicker, Yellow-shafted Flicker. Chimney Swift, Cowbird, Orchard r)rii)le. Crackle. Housefinch, Coldlinch, Savaimah Sparrow, Western Savannah Sparrow, White- throated Sparrow, Field Sj^arrovv, Chipping Sparrow, Tree Sparrow, Junco, Song Sparrow, Fox .S])arr(nv, English Sparrow, Abert Towhee, Red-eyed V'ireo, Black and Yellow W'arbler, P.lack-tbroated Green Warbler, Yellow-rumped W'arbler, Hay-breasted Warbler, Black-poll Warbler, Tine-creeping Warbler, Oven-bird, Ma- ryland Yellow-throat, Blackcap, W'estern Black- cap, Canada Warbler, Mockingbird, Catbird, Crissal Thrasher, Cactus Wren, Carolina Wren, Red-breasted Nuthatch, Chicadee, J.'ks and Ozcls. COOPER'S HAWK Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) A. (>, U. Xumher ^iz See Color I'lates 4.5, 44. 46 Other Names. — Pigeon Hawk; Chicken Hawk; Quail Hawk; Big Blue Darter; Swift Hawk; Striker. Description. — Length: male, 18 inches; female, 20 inches. Spread of wings, 30 to 36 inclies. Same pro- portions as Sharp-shinned Hawk, but larger and with tail round; five outer primaries notched on inner webs. -■Xdults : Plumage exactly the same as Sharp-shinned Hawk's excepting top of head usuall.v darker shade than ADULT MALE COOPER'S HAWK ( ) nat. size The most destructive species of Hawk Vol. H— 6 Courtesy of Am. Mus. Nal. Hist. 68 BIRDS OF AMERICA color of upper parts, and in high plumage a clearer and more uniform bluish-slate. Immature: Plumage also similar to the corresponding age of the Sharp- shinned. Nest and Eggs. — Nest ; Usually in tall trees from 10 to 50 feet from the ground in secluded woodlands; often an old Crow's or some other Hawk's nest is appropriated ; being frequently occupied for a number of years in succession, and, additional material being added each spring, some of the nests become very large and bulky structures. Eggs : 3 to 6, pale bluish or greenish-white, sometimes plain but usually spotted with pale reddish-brown. Distribution. — North .•\nierica ; breeds from south- ern British Columbia, southern .Alberta, southern Kee- watin, central Quebec, and Prince Edward Island south to southern border of the United States ; winters from southern British Columbia, Colorado, Nebraska, Ohio, and Massachusetts south to Costa Rica, and occasionally farther north. The resemblance between Cooper's Hawk and tlie Sharp-shinned is not confined to color, but extends to habits, the Cooper being, if anything, Photo by H. K. Job Courtesy oi Uuting Pub. Co. COOPER'S HAWKS Too young to leave the nest, but old enough to be curious because of its superior size, fiercer and more de- structive. It will dash into the farmyard like a bolt, passing withiti a few feet of indiyiduals and carrying ofT a young chicken with incredible swiftness. The attack is accomplished so sud- denly that, unless the gun is in hand, the robber always escapes. There is no time to run even a few yards for a weapon — the thief is gone be- fore it can be reached. If there is plenty of thick cover in the run, chickens will often escape, especially the more active breeds, like Leghorns. At my home in the Taconic Hills near Kent, Conn., I have repeatedly seen them strike, but as the foliage is dense and brushy they have in- variably been unsuccessful in securing the quarry. In four years we have not lost a chicken by Hawks. Cooper's Hawk is preeminently a " chicken Hawk," and is by far the most destructive species we have to contend with, tiot because it is in- dividually worse than the Goshawk, but because it is so much more nuinerous that the aggregate damage done far exceeds that of all other birds of prey. Although not so large as the Goshawk, it is strong enough to carry away a good-sized chicken, Grouse, or cottontail rabbit. It is especially fond of domesticated Doves, and when it finds a cote easy of approach or near its nest- ing site, the inmates usually disappear at the rate of one or two a day until the owner takes a hand in the game. The arboreal and ground squirrels appear to be the mammals most fre- quently taken by Cooper's Hawk. Remains of chipmunks, red squirrels, and gray squirrels have been found in the stoinachs. R. I. Brasher. GOSHAWK Astur atricapillus atricapillus (Wilson) A. O. U. Xiimber 334 See Color Plate 45 Other Names. — American Goshawk; Blue Hen Hawk ; Blue Darter ; Partridge Hawk ; Dove Hawk ; Chicken Hawk. General Descriprion. — Length : male, 22 inches ; female. 24 inches. Spread of wings, 43 to 47 inches. .'\bout the same proportions as the Sharp-shinned Hawk and Cooper's Hawk. Color above, bluish-slate ; below, white. Color. — Adults: Top and back of head, black, the white under surface of the feathers much exposed on EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 69 back of head; a broad conspicuous ■;<.'liilc stripe over eye exteiulin/j to back of head, fmcly slrcakcd with black; rest ol upper parts, uniform bhiisli-slale ; tail, darker and barred by five broad faintly defined bands of black- ish and tipped witli whitish; primaries, dusky slale ; lores and cheeks, dull Rrayish-whitc ; lower i)arts, white, everywhere except on throat and lower tail-coverts traversed with numerous narrow bars of slaty color, more broken on the breast, more rcKular on flanks and thighs; chin, throat, and cheeks with very fine black shaft lines; these shaft lines also evident on rest of under ]>arts ; bill, dark-bluish horn color; iris, red; cere, legs, and feet, yellow; claws, black. Young: Above, dark brown, the feathers margined with rusty, this color changing on neck and shoulders to whitish or dull bufTy ; wings and tail, barred with du'iky and liglit brown ; under parts, yellowish-white thickly marked with lance or drop-shaped dark brown streaks ; tail more strongly barred than adult's ; a broader white tip ; cere and feet, duller yellow ; iris, yellow ; bill, more brownish. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually in a conifer at a gre.it height and in the most inaccessible depths of evergreen woods; constructed of sticks, twigs, weed stalks, and leaves, and lined with strips of bark, grass, and hemlock twigs. Eccs : 2 to S, pale bluish-white, sometimes faintly spotted with pale bufTy-brown but normally immaculate. Distribution. — North .'\merica ; breeds froin north- western Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, central Kee- watin, and northern Ungava south to Michigan and New Hampshire, and in the mountains south to Penn- sylvania and New Mexico; winters from Alaska and the southern Canadian Provinces south to northern Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Atissouri, Indiana, and Vir- ginia ; accidental in I-'ngland. Drawing by R. I. Brasher GOSHAWK (; na;. size) Savage, fearless, and the merciless foe of poultry and game birds 70 BIRDS OF AMERICA It is fortunate for the American hen that the Goshawk resides mostly north of the United States, migratinj,'' southward only in winter when its toll from the poultry yard is necessarily limited because the birds are confined to their houses. It is the most destructive of the Hawks to game birds, the Ruffed Grouse suffering par- ticularly from its depredations. Though swift in attack its flight is even and its death is often accomplished with a rifle in the hands of a fair r.hot. Like most Raptorcs, hunger deprives it of caution. It will follow the hunter and snatch a wounded bird almost from beneath his feet, although this performance means its own destruction. Unless the adult is hungry, young Goshawks are more audacious than their elders and because of their brownish plumage their deeds are frequently attributed to the harm- less Red-tail. The Goshawk is the most sym- metrical and clean-cut of all its family not ex- cepting even the Peregrine Falcon, and often ( with me at least ) is allowed to escape because of its sjjlendid form and spirit. Its destructiveness cannot obliterate the appreciation its prowess arouses. The Western Goshawk (As fur atricapUlus striatulits) difTers in having the markings of the under parts much more numerous ; the upper ])arts are darker and incline to blackish on the back. This form inhabits the Arctic parts of the Pacific coast and breeds from Alaska south to the Sierra Nevadas of California. In winter it may be found in southern California and east to Colorado. R. I. Brasher. HARRIS'S HAWK Parabuteo unicinctus harrisi (Audubon) A. O. U. Number 335 Description. — Length : male, 20 inches ; female, 2.3 inches. Lores, nearly naked with numerous bristles ; inner web of five outer quills notched. Adults: Gen- eral plumage, blackish varying from dark umber-brown to a distinct dusky-black shade ; the wings and tail, gen- erally darker; lesser and a part of the middle wing- coverts and feathers of the leg, a deep rich chestnut; upper and loiver tail-coverts and base of tail, broadly while; end of tail, also white for one inch or more; sides of head with a few white streaks; bill, horn color; cere and legs, yellow ; iris, brown. Young : Plumage, more brownish, streaked on head and neck with yellow- ish-brown ; back and shoulders varied with chestnut and rusty-brown ; chestnut wing patch duller and much broken by darker feathers; white band at base of tail less sharply defined ; terminal white band on tail nar- rower or missing ; below, tawny-white broadly streaked with dark brown and dusky ; thigh feathers barred with white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In a tree or bush and varying greatly in size and finish ; different species of cacti, Spanish bayonet or mesquites are most fre- quently selected as a site; a platform constructed of sticks, twigs, and weed stems and lined with grass, inoss, and roots. Eggs : 2 to 4, dull white or green- ish-white, plain, or lightly spotted with faint yellowish- brown or lavender. Distribution. — Southeastern California, southern •Arizona, southern New Mexico, abundant in some parts of southern Te.xas, rarely reaching east to Louisiana and Mississippi ; south to Cape San Lucas and Panama ; accidental in Iowa. Harris's Hawk is tame and unsuspicious. Un- less hunting it is rather slow in flight but it possesses plenty of dash and swiftness when pur- suing prey. In the monotonous regions of mes- quite and sagebrush thickets of the southwestern deserts, any form of life arouses interest, and the traveler follows with pleasure the free swings of Harris's Hawk coursing low over the brush, searching for the wood-rats or chipinunks which constitute its principal food. It is not averse to association with Caracaras and Vultures and often joins them in their meals of carrion. Courtesy of the New York State Must.'um Plate 45 GOSHAWK Astur atricapillun atrirttpillus (Wilson) rMMATuflE J n:it. size EAC^LES, HAWKS, AND KITES 71 RED-TAILED HAWK Buteo borealis borealis (Ginelin) A. O. U. XumbtT 33y See Color Plates 43, 46, 47 Other Names.— Red Hawk; Hen Hawk; Chicken Hawk; Kcil-lail ; Eastern Red-tail; Red-tailed I'.uzzard ; Buzzard Hawk; W'hite-brcastcd Chicken Hawk. General Description. — Length : male, 22 inclics ; female. 24 inches. Spread of wings. 50 to 56 inches. Color above, dark brown ; below, whitish. Four outer primaries notched on inner webs; long, broad wings; wide-spreading tail of medium length. Color. — .■\nri.TS : Plumage above, dark brown mixed or mottled with gray and whitish ; under parts, white or whitish, usually washed with liuff on sides of breast and with abdomen streaked with dark brown or black- ish ; tail, bri<;lit rust-red or rufous above, usually with a distinct black bar near the end, the tip, whitish ; iris, brown ; bill, dusky horn color ; cere, legs, and feet, yellow. Young : Dark streaks on abdomen so thick as to form a broad band of blackish ; the tail, gray crossed by about eight narrow bars of blacki,sh ; iris and bill, yellow ; feet, duller yellow ; otherwise, similar to adults. Nest and Eggs. — Nkst: .\ large and bulky struc- ture generally placed well up in the forks of a large tree from 40 to 80 feet above ground ; constructed of i|uite large sticks and lined with smaller twigs, bits of bark, and usually with the tips of hemlock branches, fern leaves, or moss ; the same nest is occupied year after year and the annual addition of material adds to the bulk. Eccs ; 2 to 4, dull whitish or Ijhiish-white, and exhibiting a wide variation in form and markings; some plain, others heavily blotched with many shades of brown and red and still others with a few faint spots of pale lavender-gray which may form wreaths around either end or be fairly well distributed over entire surface. Distribution. — • Eastern North America, from Sas- katchewan, Wisconsin, and Illinois east to central Kee- watin and Newfoundland, and south to eastern Texas, northeastern Mexico, the Gulf coast, Florida, and the Greater Antilles. The Red-tailed Hawk's shrill kec-cr-r-r at- tracts our attention to its circling flight over the rocky hillsides of its favorite haunts. It is a slow-moving species. Frequently it is seen perched on a tree look-out where it watches for the small quadrupeds, especially mice, which form its principal food. Although known throughout the country as Photo by S. .\. Lottridge RED-TAILED HAWK A useful species for keeping down the rodent population 72 BIRDS OF AMERICA " Hen Hawk," the Red-tailed very seldom raids the chicken-yard. Where mice, squirrels and their kind are plentiful, it never does so. A di- vergence from this fact by an individual who has acquired the poultry taste may vi'arrant that par- ticular bird's destruction, but personally I would rather let these Hawks have a chicken or two for their services in keeping down the mouse and rat population. In four years of chicken- farming this toll has not been required, although many pairs nest and live around my farm. One day an investigation of shrill squeals from a tall chestnut revealed three Red-tails quarreling over a young woodchuck, so fiercely that I walked directly beneath the fighting trio before they black bars. This variation occurs in western North America from Alaska and Mackenzie southward to Cape San Lucas and Guatemala, east to western part of the Great Plains ; it is found casually in Illinois and Ontario. Harlan's Hawk (Dutco borcalls liarlani) is nearly uniform black; its tail is much mottled with grayish, rufous and white, and has a sub- terminal band of black. It is geographically dis- tributed over the lower Mississippi valley and the Gulf States from Louisiana to Georgia and Florida ; sometimes it occurs in Colorado, Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, and Pennsyl- vania. The Alaska Red-tail (Biitrn hnrcalls alasrni- Photograph by II. K. Job HOME-LIFE OF RED-TAILED HAWK Courtesy of Outing Pubhshnig Co. took alarm and fled, letting the object of the fracas drop to the ground. Krider's Hawk (Biitco borcalis kridcri) is a light-colored race, nearly pure white below with but few markings on abdomen, the subterminal tail-bar very faint or wanting, the upper side of the tail light chestnut, and a mixture of much white in plumage of the upper parts. It is found on the Great Plains from Wyoming, North Dakota, and Minnesota south to Nebraska and Missouri, and in winter to Wisconsin, Illinois, Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. The Western Red-tail (Butco borcalis calu- riis) is much darker than the stock form ; nor- mal specimens show heavier and darker bars and spots below ; in extreme cases it is uniform deep brown with the tail rich red crossed by several sis) is a larger dark-colored subspecies, inhabit- ing southeastern Alaska from Yakutat Bay to the Sitka Islands. R. I. Brasher. From its abundance, wide distribution, and striking appearance the Red-tailed Hawk is probably the best known of all the larger Hawks. Since it is handicapped by the misleading name " Hen Hawk," its habits should be carefully ex- amined. There is no denying that both it and the Red-shouldered Hawk, also known as " Hen Hawk," do occasionally eat poultry, but the quantity is so small in comparison with the vast numbers of destructive rodents consumed, that it is hardly worth mentioning. While fully 66 per cent, of the Red-tail's food consists of in- jurious mammals, not more than 7 per cent, con- sists of poultry, and it is probable that a large . ..I .. .. rg..,., V-." *;"f'-> M- Piate 46 RED-TAILED HAWK /?"''" borealis borealis (Gmelm) AOULT COOPER'S HAWK Arripiirr coopcri (Bonaparte) ADULT FEMALE i n:it. size EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 73 proportion of the poultry and game captured by it and the other buzzard Hawks is made up of old, diseased, or otherwise disabled fowls. It is well known to poulterers and owners of game pre- serves that killing off the diseased and enfeebled birds, and so preventing their interbreeding with the soinid stock, keeps the yard and coveys in good condition and hinders the spread of fatal epidemics. It seems, therefore, that the birds of prey which catch aged, frost-bitten, and dis- eased poultry, together with wounded and crip- pled game, are serving both farmer and sports- man. Abundant proof is at hand to show that the Red-t;iil greatly prefers the smaller mammals, rejitiles, and batrachians, taking little else when these can be obtained in sufficient numbers. If hard pressed by hunger, however, it will eat any form of life, and will not reject even offal and carrion ; dead Crows from about the roosts, poultry which has been thrown on the compost heap, and flesh from the carcasses of goats, sheep and the larger domesticated animals are eaten at such times. Immature Hawks are more apt to commit depredations than adults, the reason ])robably being that they lack skill to procure sufficient quantity of their staple food. A large proportion of the birds eaten consists of ground- dwelling species which probably are snatched up while half concealed in the grass or vegetation. .\mong the mammals most often eaten and most injurious to mankind are the arboreal and ground squirrels, rabljits, voles and other mice. The stomachs of the Red-tailed Hawks examined contained the Abert squirrel, red squrrrel, three species of gray squirrels, two species of chip- munks. Say's ground squirrel, i)latcau ground squirrel, Franklin ground squirrel, striped ground squirrel, harvest mouse, common rat, house mouse, white-footed mouse, Sonoran white-footed mouse, wood rat, meadow mouse, pine mouse. Cooper lenmiing mouse, cotton rat, jumping mouse, porcupine, jack rabbit, three races of cottontails, jxniched gopher, kangaroo rat, skimk, mole, and four kind ; of shrews. The larger insects also, such as grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles, are sometimes extensively used as food. A. K. Fisher, in The Food of Hawks and Ou'ls. 9. r >,*■ * - <: Photograph l>y C< YOUNG RED-TAILED HAWK 74 BIRDS OF AMERICA RED-SHOULDERED HAWK Buteo lineatus lineatus (Gmelin) A. O. U. Number 339 See Color Plate 47 Red-shouldered Buzzard; Big Other Names. Chicken Hawk ; Hen Hawk ; Winter Hawk General Description. — Length : male. 20 inches ; female, 22 inches. Spread of wings, 44 to 50 inches. Color above, reddish-brown ; below, lighter reddish- brown, barred and streaked. Four outer primaries notched on' inner webs ; outer webs spotted with white or buff. Color. — Head, neck, and back, deep rufous, each feather with a blackish center stripe; chin, throat, and cheeks, dull white with a dusky indistinct mustache; under parts, light rufous, abdomen, sides, and middle of breast with transverse bars of buff; thigh feathers, pale ochraceous ; lower tail-coverts, plain whitish ; lesser Ti'iitg-covcrts, rufous or chestnut with black shaft streaks ; shoulders and middle wing-coverts broadly edged with rufous; secondaries, dark brown tipped and crossed with two bands of whitish ; primaries, dusky- black fading at tips into grayish-brown with square spots of white on outer webs; rump, uniform brownish- black ; upper tail-coverts banded with the same color ; tail, brownish-black barred with six sharply defined Photo by H. K. Job Courtesy of Outing Pub. Co. NEST OF RED-SHOULDERED HAWK This nest was later used by Barred Owls narrow bands of white, the last at the tip and the first two concealed by upper coverts ; bill, bluish horn color ; cere and legs, yellow ; iris, brown. Young : Above, plain dark brown without orange-brown or rusty mark- ings ; lesser wing-covcrts. rusty but not so pronounced as in the adult plumage : head. neck, and under parts. white or yellowish-white, rather heavily streaked with drop- or arrow-shaped marks of dark brown; tail, brown crossed by a number of lighter and darker bars : iris, yelloiv. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually placed in the fork of a lofty elm. birch, maple, or beech (seldom in a conifer) ; a large bulky structure made almost entirely of sticks. Eggs : 3 to 5. dull white or bluish-white, erratically spotted and blotched with umber and yellow- ish-brown. Distribution. — Eastern North .America ; breeds from Manitoba, southern Keewatin, southern Quebec. Nova Scotia. Prince Edward Island, south nearly to the Gulf States, west to edge of the Great Plains: winters south to the Gulf coast. Courtesy of Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. RED-SHOULDERED HAWK (; nat. size) A species which is very valuable to the farmer Although quite as common in many localities as the Red-tail, the Red-shotildered Hawk is less often seen, since it keeps more within the shade of woods and especially so in swampy tree- covered areas. It is a lighter-btiilt bird than the Red-tail and more impetuous in pursuit of its prey. Its call — a shrill kcc-yoo — is sharper and with less " burr " on the last note. Any one familiar with both species can identify them in life almost as far as they can be seen. The yotmg require more careful inspection, but the slenderer and less-feathered legs with more heavily streaked breast serve to identify them. Ustially the Red-shouldered Buzzards are found in pairs ; they evidently mate for the entire year and Courtusy of ttiu Now York Stati-- Musuum Plate 47 /6.' RED-SHOULDEREU HAWK Buttn Ihii (litis liniatti^ ^^;Illt•Ii!l^ ADULT All '■. iiat. size RED-TAILED HAWK Buteo hviculi.i bmcuUs ILJmelin) IMMATURE EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 75 possibly for life. Tlic ymiiis,' and ])arciUs often remain together throughout the autumn. The Florida l\ed-shou!. V. Number 340 Description. — Length: male, 19 inches; female. Ji inches. Spread of wings. 47 to 53 inches. Color. — -.-Xdults: Entire body, a uniform glossy coal-black; viewed from above the tail i'.; black, nar- rowly lifted li'ith ivhitc and crossed ivith three bands of slate color increasing in width and distinctness from front to rear, and narrowly tipjied with white; viewed from below, three pure white zones appear, since the ashy is on outer webs only, with white on inner web; wings when folded quite black, but inner webs hasally marked with light and dark bars and spotted with white ; feet, yellowish ; bill, dark blackish-horn. Young : Similar to adults but the snowy white bases of the feathers, especially on head and neck, more inclined to show through ; tail banded with more numerous and less regular bars with the inner webs of the feathers mostly white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: From 15 to 50 feet from ground on the horizontal branches of tall cottonwoods. ash. sycamores, bo.x elders, or cypress trees, along borders of streams ; constructed of coarse sticks and twigs and lined with leaves or Spanish moss. Eggs : 2 to 4. dull white, spotted or blotched with warm chest- nut or umber-brown, chiefly at large end. Distribution. — Southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas, south through Mexico and Central America to Venezuela and British Guiana; casual in southern California. Little is known of the life history of the Zone- tailed Hawk. Its favorite haunts are banks of streams, and it builds its nest and lives among the cottonwoods. In Texas and New Mexico, these wanderers from Mexico are said to freciuent canons and to dive down the perpendicular sides, like Clarke's Nutcracker, almost to the stream at the bottom. It is a lightly-built bird. Its food consists of small mammals, lizards, frogs, and l)eetles, grasshoppers, and other insects. Other Names. — Brown Hawk Hawk. Description. — Length ; male. 20 inches ; female. 22 inches. Spread of wings. 50 to 56 inches. Three outer primaries notched on inner webs. Color. — Every possible gradation of coloration be- tween the normal and melanistic phases is exhibited by different individuals. Adi'lt M.\i.e in Normal Plum- age: .^bove. grayish-brown; tail tinged with hoary and with about 9 or 10 dusky bands; forehead, chin, and throat, white; chest, broadly bright chestnut with black shaft lines; rest of under parts, whitish usually barred and spotted with brown ; iris, brown ; feet and cere, yellow; bill and claws, bluish-black. Adult Female in Normal Plumage: Chest, grayish-brown; otherwise like male. Darker or Melanistic Phase (both sexes): Entire plumage sooty-brown. Young: Entire SWAINSON'S HAWK Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte \. O I'. Xuinber 342 Black Hawk; Hen upper parts, dark brown, each feather tawny-edged; head. neck, and under parts, buff or huffy white ; wings and tail, barred with darker brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Placed almost anywhere — on the ground, in bushes, or on ledges — but gen- erally it is placed in the tallest trees toward the end of horizontal branches ; constructed of small branches and twigs, and lined with a few leaves, moss, or feathers ; sometimes old nests are rehabilitated. Eggs : 2 to 4, normally 2. white, greenish-white, or huffy-white, usu- ally spotted or blotched with reddish-brown ; some- times unmarked. Distribution. — North and South America ; breeds from southern British Columbia. Fort Yukon. Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, and Manitoba south to Chile; casual in Quebec. Ontario. Maine, and Massachusetts ; winters from South Dakota southward. 76 BIRDS OF AMERICA Swainson's Hawk is a western bird which occurs eastward occasionally, specimens having been taken in many of the eastern States. In 7 Photo by S. A. Lottridge IMMATURE SWAINSON'S HAWK many cases where it has been reported, however, this identification was probably incorrect. On the sage plains of Washington, Oregon, and adjoining States the characteristic Hawk is Swainson's. There it is very abundant. It prefers the open prairies, coursing over these uninhabited wastes with slow circling flight until its quarry is sighted when it is transformed into the quick alert hunter intent on securing the prize. " Compared with the majority of our Hawks it is gentle and unsuspicious in disposition, living in perfect harmony with its smaller neighbors. It is no unusual sight to find other birds nesting in the same tree ; and the Arkansas Kingbird goes even farther than this, sometimes constructing its home under the nest of these Hawks or in the sides of it. The food of Swain- son's Hawk consists almost entirely of the smaller rodents, principally striped gophers and mice, as well as grasshoppers and the large black cricket which is very common as well as destruc- tive in certain seasons, and the bane of the farmers in eastern Oregon, and other localities in the Great Basin, destroying and eating up ever}' green thing as they move along. I cannot recall a single instance where one of these birds visited a poultry yard. From an economic point of view I consider it by far the most useful and beneficial of all our Hawks." (Bendire.) The adult in normal plumage is likely to be mistaken for the immature Red-tail or possibly for the Red-shouldered Hawk, but it lacks the rufous wing-coverts, and has a broad pectoral hand of gray, brown, or cinnamon, separating the white throat from the nearly white under parts. The fact that this hawk has only three primaries notched on the inner webs will separate it from either the Red-tailed or the Red-shouldered Hawk. BROAD-WINGED HAWK Buteo platypterus ( J'ieillut) A. O. U. .Number 34J See Color Plate 48 Other Name. — Broad-winged Buzzard. General Description. — Length: male, 14 inches; female, 18 inches. Spread of wings, 33 to 38 inches. Color above, dark brown ; below, white, barred and streaked. Three outer primaries notched on inner webs; wing never more than i3!/2 inches long. Color. — Crown, back of head, and nape, blackish- brown broken by dull rufous behind; back, shoulders, and upper parts, dark grayish-brown, the feathers with black shaft line and plain dark brown centers; pri- maries and secondaries, deep dusky on outer webs and at ends and barred with darker ; tail, similar to color of back, crossed witli three narrow grayish-white bars ; line back of eye and sides of head, grayish-white finely EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 77 streaked with dusky and brown; lores, whitish; a diffused but strongly marked mustache from gape to breast but throat white ; breast, pale yellowish-brown shading into whitish under coverts, thickly traversed on breast with broad arrowhead bars of reddish-l)rown, these bars wider on sides and Hanks, narrower on thigh leathers, and each with a central dark shaft line; greater coverts edged with rufous or raw umber; bill, dark horn color ; cere and feet, yellow ; claws, black ; iris, deep brown. Young: Above, blackish-brown vari- egated with raw umber, chestnut, or dull whitish edg- ings to all feathers ; streaks above and behind eye and sides of head, pale yellowish-brown streaked with brownish ; throat, white as in adult ; under parts, yellow- ish-white vvitli a tinge of tawny, boldly marked on sides and flanks with longitudinal drop- and arrowhead- shaped dark brown spots, center line of breast and abdomen with a few narrow streaks or plain ; tail, dark brown crossed with 6 or 8 lighter bars on both webs of middle leathers, on outer webs of the others; all tail-feathers tipped with white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually placed in the crotches of trees from 10 to 8o feet above ground; roughly and coarsely constructed of sticks and bits of bark and lined with small roots, bark strips, moss, or feathers and sometimes decorated with green sprigs. Kggs : 2 to 5, usually 2 or 3. very pale greenish or grayish-white heavily marked with brown spots. Distribution. — Eastern North .'Xmerica ; breeds from central ."Mljcrta. southeastern Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton Island south to the Gulf coast and central Texas, mainly east of the Mississippi; winters from the Ohio and Delaware valleys south to Venezuela and Peru. Tlie Broad-winged Hawk i.s a common though locally dislril)uted Hawk, partial to deep woods. It will remain motionless for hours, apparently asleep hut in reality wide awake, for the least movement in the brush below of a prospective victim will send him from his perch like an arrow. He is more silent and more fond of solitude than other Hawks. His call note is much weaker, closely resembling that of the Wood Pewee, but louder, higher pitched, and with the last note short and less plaintive than the notes of the Flycatcher, and having a certain ventriloquistical quality which makes it difficult to judge the distance of the author. As far as my experience goes, it seems to be a beneficial and harmless species, confining its food to small animals, frogs, mice, etc., and seldom molesting the farmer's chickens. Agri- culturists with whom I have talked do not always share this view but then it is difficult to eradicate an idea so firmly intrenched as the belief that all Hawks arc demons. Of the economic status of this species, Dr. A. K. Fisher, says : " The Broad-winged Hawk feeds largelv on insects, small mammals, snakes, toads, and frogs, and occasionally on small birds. It is especially fond of the larvae or caterpillars of the large moths which feed upon the leaves of fruit and shade trees. These insects are too large and formidable for the smaller insectiv- orous birds to attack : hence their principal enemies are Hawks, of which the one under con- sideration is the most important. It feeds ex- tensively also upon grasshoppers, crickets, cicad.-e. May beetles and other coleoptera. Like the other Buzzard Haw'ks, it is fond of meadow mice, and eats also considerable numbers of chip- munks, shrews, red squirrels, and occasionally rabbits and moles. IVobably the greatest damage Drawing by R. I. Brasher BROAD-WINGED HAWK (J oat. size) A beneficial and harmless species done bv this Hawk is the destruction of toads and snakes, which are mainly insectivorous and hence beneficial to the farnuT." R. I. Br.\sher. 78 BIRDS OF AMERICA Photo by H. K. .h jb Courtesy of L>utinf; Pub. Co. BROAD-WINGED HAWK Approaching its nest with a piece of bark in its mouth SENNETT'S WHITE-TAILED HAWK Buteo albicaudatus sennetti Allen A. O. U. Xumlicr 341 Other Name.— White-tail. General Description. — Length : male, 22 inches ; female. 24 inches. Spread of wings, 50 to 56 inches. Color above, ash ; below, white, barred on sides. Three outer primaries notched on inner webs. Color. — .^nuLT M.-^le : Upper parts, including crown, sides of head, and neck, clear ash, tinged on shoulders with reddish ; lesser iving-c averts, pure reddish-brown not extending to edge of zving ; rump, upper coverts, and tail, pure white, unth a broad black band near the tip and numerous fine irregular blackish cross lines ; entire under parts, pure Zi'hite lightly crossed with fine dark bars on sides and usually on thigh feathers ; the greater coverts and secondaries like back but slightly darker gradually deepening to dusky-black on prima- ries, the inner webs of which are more brownish and crossed with numerous darker bars, speckled basally with white increasing in firmness and extent on second- aries ; bill, blackish-horn : feet and gape, yellow ; claws, black; cere, dull greenish. Adult Fem.\le: Similar to adult male but colors generally darker and reddish- brown of wing-coverts more extensive. Young: Crown, sides of head and neck, throat, lower breast and upper abdomen, back, and wings, clear sepia-brown ; region over eye and rear part of sides of head with a few very narrow white streaks ; lores, a rather broad streak below eye, and edge of wing, white; throat streaked with whitish ; lower abdomen, thighs, under tail- coverts, white with heart-shaped spots of sepia; tail. grayish-ash shading to darker brown at end where tipped with white, crossed or not with very faint darker bars ; wing-coverts outlined with paler brown ; bill, horn color ; legs, yellow ; claws black : cere, livid. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Placed in low trees or hushes within 10 feet of ground ; a large rough bulky structure of sticks and grasses usually destitute of lining. Eggs: 2 or 3, dull white, faintly and lightly spotted with yellowish-brown. Distribution. — From central Texas south to south- ern Mexico. Sennett's White-tailed Hawk is an exceedingly handsome bird and a straggler over our border from Mexico. Its banded white tail and con- spicuous chestnut wing patch give it a distinction shared by no other Hawk. Though its habits are not very well understood they are probably simi- lar to those of others of the genus. R. I. P.R.XSHER. Courtesy of the New York Stat.- Museum Plate 48 tM^\>< ^ ^ki ih ^RS^ *^'/ t'/f^t-' t% * 'ftturdftuii fut'/if ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK Archlbuteo iaoopus snnctl'johannt'B (Gmelin) Black phase BROAD-WINGED HAWK Buleo plalyplerus (Vieillot) ADULT IMMATURE MARSH HAWK '^"■cu* Aiit/«oni'ii« (Linnaeus) .„ . "ALE All } nat, size EAGLES, HAWKS, AND KITES 79 ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis {Ui>icli>i} A. O. U. XumbcT 3.1-a Sec Color I'latcs 4,i. 4s Other Names. — American Rough-lcKKcd Hawk; Kdiinhlcu; Riiugh-legKtd Buzzard; Hlack Hawk; iMimsc Hauk. General Description. - I.fiigtli : male, jo inches; female-, J_> inches. .MhiuI the size ot the Red-tailed Hawk, but nuicli lighter huilt and with more slender feet and longer, more pointed wings ; four outer primaries deeply notched on inner webs ; feathers of icijs cxlciid- 111(1 to the toes. Color. — Intermediate stages betw een normal and melanistic plumages are common. .Adults ( Nok.mai. Coi.oK.MioN ) : Upper parts, grayish-brown, margined with whitish and huffy ; wings and tail barred with gray aiul whitish; inner webs of primaries and under sur- faces of wing-feathers, white toward their bases; tips of wings and patch on middle under wing-coverts, black ; under parts, white or bulTy, spotted and streaked with blackish, forming a dark band across the abdomen. YouNc;: Knd portion of tail, plain grayish-brown except for white tip ; under parts more heavily marked with hlack. the band across abdomen, broad and unbroken ; otherwise similar to adults. Dark oh .Melanistic Phase (co.m.mon to all ages and to both SEXES) : Uniform sooty-black, except base of tail and a portion of the bases of the wing-feathers which are white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Usually placed in large trees but sometimes on ledges; a large bulky structure of interlaced sticks, grasses, and weeds and lined with small twigs, liner grasses, and other fibrous vegetable material, well felted together. Egcs : 2 to 5, usually _' or 3 varying from dingy to buffy-white and sprinkled with l)lotchcs of dark brown. Distribution. — North America north of Mexico; breeds from the Aleutian Islands, northwestern Alaska. .Arctic coast, and northern Ungava, south to central British Columbia. southern Mackenzie, southern Ungava. and Newfoundland; winters from Oregon, Colorado, Minnesota, and the northern boundary of eastern United States, south to central California, southern New Me.xico, Texas, Louisiana, and North Carolina. The Rough-legged Hawk breeds in Alaska and Canada and is but a winter migrant to the States. Its favorite haunts are in u])en meadows or in couiUry covered with scrub and brush. It is the nearest to nocturnal of all our Hawks. Its plum- age is soft and fluffy, its flight noiseless, and, when observed in the twilight sweeping quietly over the open spaces where held mice abound, it is easily mistaken for an Owl. When mice are abundant one or two Rough-legs will hunt for weeks in the vicinity, eft"cctually controlling these pests and saving many fruit trees, especially the young ones, from destruction. While watching for rabbits on moonlit nights 1 have more than once been startled by the sudden appearance of a dark form swooping noiselessly down on a luckless mouse playing on the snow crust. A swift dash — a tiny squeak — then the quick disappearance of captor and victim into the shadows. The Ferruginous Rough-leg (Archibuteo fcr- rugincus) is quite similar in its habits to the common Rough-leg. The adults have the top. back, and sides of head streaked equally with blackish and white; rest of (he upper parts, blackish and chestnut in about equal amounts ; the tail silvery ash tinged with rufous and with white tip and base ; the under parts, pure white from bill to end of tail ; and legs, chestnut barred with black. It breeds from southern Washing- ton, southwestern Saskatchewan, and southern Manitoba to southern California, Utah, Colo- rado, and Kansas, and winters from Montana to Lower California and northern Mexico. The Ferruginous Rough-leg is rarely found east of the Mississippi. Of the value to man of these two species. Dr. A. K. Fisher says : " The Rough-legged Hawk and the Ferruginous Rough-leg, or Squirrel Hawk, as it is sometimes called on account of its fondness for ground squirrels, so destructive in the West, are among our largest and most bene- ficial Hawks. The winter range of the Rough- leg is determined more by the fall of snow than by the intensity of cold, the main body advancing and retreating as the barrier of snow melts or accumulates. " Meadow mice and lemmings form the staple food of this bird. In this country lemmings do not reach our territory except in .'\laska, but in the north of Europe they occasionally form into vast, migrating devastating hordes which carry destruction to crops in the country invaded. The vole, or meadow mouse, is common in many parts of this country, and east of the Mississippi River without doubt is the most destructive mammal to agriculture. It destroys meadows by tunnel- ing under thetn and eating the roots of grass. This mouse also destroys grain and various kinds of vegetables, especially tubers, but prob- 8o BIRDS OF AMERICA ably does even more damage by girdling young fruit trees. In 1892 considerable areas in south- eastern Scotland were overrun by meadow mice and a large amount of property was destroyed during the ' vole plague.' Just such invasions are to be expected in any country where preda- cious mammals and birds are reduced to a mini- mum in the supposed interest of game preserva- tion. This wholly upsets nature's balance, and the injurious rodents are left practically without an enemy to control their increase. Attempts have been made in some of our States to reduce the number of Hawks and Owls by offering bounties for their heads, but fortunately the work has not been carried far enough to do the harm that has resulted from the long-continued efforts of gamekeepers in Great Britain. " The Ferruginous Rough-leg is as fully bene- ficial as its relative, though the character of its food differs somewhat. In many parts of the country inhabited by it, meadow mice, which play such an important part in the economy of the other bird, are scarce or wanting, but are re- placed by nearly as destructive rodents, the ground squirrels. Upon these this large and handsome Hawk wages continuous warfare, and great is the service it performs in keeping their numbers in check. Rabbits, prairie dogs, and occasionally pouched gophers are eaten. It is humiliating to think how many of these two noble Hawks are ruthlessly murdered, and to reflect that legislators put bounties on their heads to satisfy the ignorant prejudices of their coH'^tituents." R. I. Brasher. BALD EAGLE Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus {Liiincnis) A, O. V. Xumber 352 Other Names. — White-headed Eagle ; White-headed Sea Eagle; American Eagle; Black Eagle; Gray Eagle; Washington Eagle. The last three names refer to the immature Bald Eagle. General Description. — Length : male, 30 to 35 inches ; female, 34 to 43 inches. Spread of wings, 6'/J to 7-)4 feet. Plumage, dark brown. Tarsus, hare for an inch or more above base of toes: five outer primaries deeply notched on inner webs. Color. — Adults: Entire head, neck, upper tail- coverts, and tail, white; rest of plumage, dark brown, many of body feathers with paler margins, and the wing-feathers nearly black; bill, cere, and feet, bright yellow; iris, pale yellow or yellowish-white. Immature, FIRST year: Plumage, mainly black; no white on head, only small freckles of white on inner webs of tail- feathers, but all body feathers, snowy white below the surface; bill, black; feet, yellow; iris, brown. Im- See Color I'lates 43, 49 .\'.\TURE. Second and Third Ye.ars: Head and neck, mainly black, the long narrow feathers at the back of the neck, tipped with brown or gray ; tail, black, the inner webs of most of the feathers, sprinkled or mottled with whitish ; body feathers, above and below, mixed brown, black, and gray, sometimes streaked and mar- gined with pure white; bill, dark horn color; cere and feet, yellow ; iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : In large trees from 20 to 90 feet above ground, sometimes in niches of rocky cliffs ; a large coarsely built aflFair of good-sized sticks, roots, twigs, seaweed, bits of turf, vine or plant stalks and lined with roots or grass. Eggs : 2, rarely 3. ivory white with a granular surface. Distribution. — United States to southern Lower California and northern Me.xico, breeding in suitable location throughout its range ; rare and local in Cali- fornia and in arid interior. In flight or at rest the Bald Eagle is majestic, its white head and tail lending dignity to its im- posing form. The Eagle as a type has inspired manv literary tributes. Tennyson's two stanzas refer presumably to the Gray Sea Eagle of Europe, which sometirnes visits the western hemisphere, but they might well have been ad- dressed to our Bald Eagle : He clasps the crags with crooked hands; Close to the sun in lonely lands, Ring'd with the azure world, he stands. The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; He watches from his mountain walls, And like a thunder-bolt he falls. In prose perhaps nothing finer has been written than Mr. Burroughs's expression : " He draws great lines across the sky ; he sees the forests like a carpet beneath him ; he sees the hills and valleys as folds and wrinkles in a many colored tapestry ; he sees the river as a silver belt connecting remote horizons. We climb mountain-peaks to get a glimpse of the spectacle that is hourly spread out beneath hiiu. Dignity, elevation, repose, are his. T would have my thoughts take as wide a sweep. I would be as far removed from the petty cares and turmoils of this noisy and blustering world." (Far and Near.) Court*^sy of tho New York State Museum Plate 49 GOLDEN EAGLE Aqmla chrymetu.^ (Linnaeus i nut. size ^ W.'.^' I ^H^G^aHrr ^« BALD EAGLE // ■ ■ l,l,.,l„s !,., ,,/,,;/,;. Il.ltiniil-IH IMMATURE i nat. size EAC.LKS, HAWKS, AND KITES 81 'I'lic I'.alil l"a<,'le frciiui-nts the shores of lakes and rivers. His food consists very largely of fish aiul he very seldom or never nests at any great distance from where this food can be obtained in abimdancc. He is almost non-migratory, only deserting his home during the coldest weather when the waters arc frozen over. Frequently he is seen soaring high in the air in search of something to eat. His power of sight is famous and often he will spy the object of his quest when at a distance of two or three miles and make a direct line for it. Most of his food is dead fish gathered from the surface of the water or from the shores of lakes and rivers but when he cannot find the dead fish he often robs the ( )sprey coiiiijelling it to drop the fish it has just captured. Sometimes the Eagle fishes for himself but he is not an expert fisherman. Oc- casionally he joins the Crows and Ravens when they are feeding upon carrion. Tn the winter time he often attacks waterfowl, but is rarely successful if the fowl be upon water, for just as the Eagle dro])s for his prey the latter dives be- neath the surface of the water and escapes. He kills many rabbits, squirrels, mice, and snakes, but on the whole he confers no decided benefits on the agriculturist. On rare occasions an Eagle has been known to pick up a hen or to destroy a young lamb but these are not common offenses. The male Bald Eagle has a high clear call which is represented by the syllables cac-cac-cac. The female's cry is more harsh and broken and Dr. Fisher compares it to the loud laugh of a inaniac. They have a screaming note which much resembles the voice of a sea gull and has been likened to that of a small fox or of a dog. The nest, a bulky and conspicuous affair, is placed high up in a large tree generally so situ- ated that a wide view of the surrounding countrv can be obtained. Year after year the same pair of Eagles occupy the nest, making slight repairs to it each spring. Bald Eagles mate for life and apparently they are very fond of each other. Family cares are undertaken very early in the season ; in Florida, eggs are laid in December or January ; in the Middle States, in February or March: and in districts further north, a little later. .About thirty days are needed for incubation and only one brood is reared a season. When the baby Ivigles are hatched they are covered with a whitish down but they acquire their lirst plumage before they are able to fly. Three years must pass before maturity is reached. I )uring these years the young Eagles are notice- ably ditTerent in color from the adults and dur- ing the first year after leaving the nest they are larger than cither of the j)arents, the expanse of Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Au'l. Si. BALD EAGLE'S NEST Florida the wing being often a foot more. These large immature birds deceived Audubon who thought they were a distinct species and named them " Birds of Washington." In northwestern Alaska, northwestern Mac- kenzie, central Keewatin, and northern Ungava south to British Columbia and the Great Lakes occurs a larger but otherwise similar Eagle known as the Northern Bald Eagle (Haliccetus Icucoccphalns alascanus). 82 BIRDS OF AMERICA GOLDEN EAGLE Aquila chrysaetos (Liniitrus) A. O. U. Number 349 ^^<.•e Tolor Plate 49 Other Names.— Ring-tailed Eagle ; Black Eagle ; Mountain Eagle; Gray Eagle; Brown Eagle. General Description. — Length, about 3 feet ; spread of wings, 7 to 7J/2 feet. Plumage, dark brown. Legs feathered to the toes. Color. — Adults; Dark brown with a faint purplish gloss becoming lighter on wing-coverts, tail- and thigh- feathers ; feathers of back of head, nape, and sides of neck with separate, spear-head-shaped tips, of a deef golden brown; primaries, secondaries, and tail, more blackish ; tail, white or grayish at base ; bill, bluish horn ; legs, cere. gape, and line over eye, yellow ; claws, black ; iris, brown. Young : Darker and larger than adults ; tail, white at very base and with a broad black terminal bar ; golden-brown of back of head, etc., less apparent and duller ; otherwise as in adults. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Usually on inaccessible cliffs, sometimes in large trees — sycamores, pines, or oaks; constructed of good-sized sticks and lined with hay, twigs, or green grass. The birds return every year to the same site, adding material each season until the nest sometimes becomes 4 or 5 feet in diameter and nearly the same height. Eggs: 2, white, beautifully marked with bold spots, specks, and blotches of chest- nut, sienna, and shades of purple, more heavily at large end. Distribution. — Northern part of northern hemi- sphere ; in the Old World south to north Africa and the Himalaya ; in North .America from northern Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and north- ern Ungava south to middle Lower California, central Mexico, western Texas, South Dakota, Manitoba, southern Keewatin, central Ontario, New Hampshire, Maine and Nova Scotia and in the .'Mleghenies to southwestern North Carolina; less common east of the Mississippi. The aerie was in the top of a storm-battered old pine on the east slope of the Cascades. It looked impossible to climb, yet the going up was not so hard. Excitement led me on. As I climbed, the task became more precarious. My heart beat wilder each time the pair of Bald Eagles circled near. I finally straddled the big limb below the nest and worked a hazardous way through five feet of dead limbs and debris. I had read so many stories of fierce Eagles that I half persuaded myself I should be attacked, but I wasn't. After a careful study extending over several years, I have found that forty-eight such cases out of every fifty may be set down as false in the beginning. Investigation will show the forty-ninth is without truth, and there might pos- sibly be a slight cause for the fiftieth. I have the records of over a hundred nests of the Bald and Golden Eagles that have been robbed and in not a single case did the birds put up a fight. The pair of Eagles were winding slowly arotmd the bhie dome of the sky. I moved the young- sters over and climbed in beside them to visit. Here were the nestlings of noble birth. Of the millions of people who daily see our national emblem on the coins and arms of our country, few know anything of the Eagle as a bird. Few know of the home-life and habits. Fewer still have ever seen an Eagle wild and free. In North America, we have two Eagles that are of general distribution : the Bald Eagle, found in the wilder places throughout the United States, and the Golden Eagle, now restricted almost en- tirely to the mountainous regions of the West. The term " bald " originated from the white head which is an unmistakable mark of identity of the full-grown bird and at a distance gives the impression of baldness. The Bald Eagle is much the same general color as the Golden Eagle up to the time it is three years old. In the time of Audubon, these young Bald Eagles were considered a separate species. At the age of three years, the Bald Eagle attains maturity and the white feathers appear on the head and neck. To distinguish one species from the other, look at the lower joint of the leg. If this is covered with feathers down to the toes, it is a Golden Eagle; if the leg is naked, it is a Bald Eagle. In some ways, the Golden Eagle is a nobler bird than his white-headed cousin. The Bald Eagle is a resident along the big rivers, on the shores of lakes and on the islands of the sea. Its favorite food is fish. It often catches these, or compels an Osprey to pay tribute. In some places, it lives almost entirely on the dead fish it finds along the shores. The Golden Eagle is more of a hunter. It has seldom been known to touch dead animals. In the coast mountains of California, we finally found an aerie of a Golden Eagle that could be photographed. To the branch of a tall sycamore bending out toward the valley, the Eagles had carried a cartload of sticks and made a platform five feet across. We made a close studv of the castle in the w & 1-1 I M s o w w o <; w w Q -J o o PC o u 3 t> H <: o o H O a o H o < w erf ei< 15 T3 ■" "■^ S£ MS C 3 3 O. *- C 'o *- 0) w o E " o « £ I* < K O pa 'C 3 - O . ^ Pi Vol.. II — 7 I83] 84 BIRDS OF AMERICA sycamore. These Eagles were successful hunters. We never saw the time when their larder was empty. The food of the young Eagles consisted almost entirely of ground squirrels. The first visit I made to the aerie after the Eaglets were hatched, I found the bodies of four ground squirrels lying on the rim of the nest. For miles along the lower hills, the ground was perforated with the burrows of these rodents. On rocky lookouts above, the Eagles had their regular watch-towers where they kept vigil. The Golden Eagle cradled her eggs in the big sycamore the first week in March. The period of incubation lasted a month, for the eggs hatched on April 3d. At first the Eaglets were covered with soft, white down, rather poor garments for a hunter, but this coat lasted a full month. Dur- ing this time, the youngsters grew from the egg till they weighed as much as a good-sized hen. Then black pinfeathers began to prick up through the down, first appearing on the wings and back. It was not till the first week in June that the Eaglets were fairly well clothed. The wings and feet were still very weak. The wing-feathers were slow in gaining the strength that was neces- sary to handle such heavy bodies. It required the continuad efiforts of both parents to hunt food for such ravenous children. It took many days of practicing on the nest edge by flapping their wings and much parental persuasion before the young Eagles sailed out from the castle in the sycamore. William L. Finley. The food of the Golden Eagle consists of fawns, rabbits, woodchucks, prairie dogs, and ground squirrels among mammals, and Turkeys, Grouse, and waterfowl among birds. At times it attacks also the young of domesticated animals, notably lambs, pigs, goats, and poultry. It has been known to attack calves and colts, but such instances must be exceptional and when the birds are hard pressed by hunger. Over extensive areas of the West the Golden Eagle unites with other birds of prey to keep many species of noxious rodents in check, and must be considered beneficial. In the more thickly inhabited regions, however, where such food is scarce, they often do great damage by carrying oiif lambs, young pigs, kids, and poultry. As many as four hundred lambs are reported to have been taken from contiguous ranges in one season. It thus will be seen that in one region the bird should be protected and in another kept in check. FALCONS Order Raptorcs; suborder Falcoiies; family Falcon idcr; subfamily Falconina HE Falcons are in some respects the most remarkable, as they certainly are the most famous, of the birds of prey. Their savage and predacious disposition, swiftness of flight, and extraordinary keenness of vision suggested centuries ago their employment in the pursuit of other birds and small mammals, and thus arose the ancient sport of falconry, which is still followed to some extent in the Orient, though its obvious cruelty finally caused its abandonment in western Europe. In days when hawking was at its height in England, the rank of the individual could be told by the particular species of Falcon which he carried on his wrist : the Gyrfalcon was carried by royalty, the Peregrine Falcon was carried by an earl, the Goshawk by a yeoman, the Sparrow Hawk by a priest, and the Kestrel by a servant. The true Falcons have the bill sharply hooked, toothed, and notched. The projecting bony eye-shield gives the bird a peculiarly stern and domineering expression. The legs are muscular; the talons curved, strong, and ver>' sharp; the wings, long, strong, and pointed; the tail, rigid and comparatively short; the general build, powerful. The flight of all the species is remarkably swift, and the birds' movements on the wing are very quick and certain. Without apparent efTort they overtake and kill in flight the swiftest flying Ducks, as well as Pigeons and Grouse. Their courage is great and they do not hesitate to attack birds much larger and stronger than themselves. Birds pursued by Falcons seem to realize that their only chance for escape is to keep above the enemy, and it often happens, therefore, that both birds may fly so high as to disappear entirely. Eventually, however, Courtesy of the Now Yor;^ -"' Plate 50 /i JpKi'r C^cai0i00i> GYRFALCON Falco ru)iticfilus yyr/alo Linnaeua WHITE GVRFALCON Falco islandus Brunnich BLACK GYRFALCON Faleo ruslicolus obsolelus Gmelin All J nut. size FALCONS 85 the relentless pursuer will rise above his victim, and then in a few moments will come the savage and certain downward |)lunj:;c, and the clutch of the merciless talons which means death in midair. Because of these (|ua]ities the Falcons, with a few exceptions, such as the American Sparrow Hawk, are hij^jhly destructive to other birds; yet their bravery, skill, flcetness, and determination challenge the admiration of man, and often enlist his protection, or at any rate stay his hand which wfuild be raised against a destroyer less courageous and less picturesque. The nests of the Falcons are less bulky than are those of the Hawks and some species lay their eggs on a bare rock or in a hollow tree. The number of eggs varies from two to five but is most often four. .'\. O. U. Number 353 Other Name. — Greenland Gyrfalcon. General Description. — Lenglli : male, 22 inches ; female. 24 inches. Spread of wings. 50 to 55 inches. Plumage, white. Tarsus covered with feathers ahout Yi down on front and sides, the feathers meeting at the back. Color. — Anui.TS : Entire l^lumagc, ti'hile, the feathers of back, shoulders, middle and lesser wing-coverts with pale ashy drop-shaped crescents or arrow- head spots, the number varying with the individual ; bill, bluish-horn, darker at tip; cere, edges of eyelids, and feet, livid bluish ; claws, blue-black ; iris, brown. Young: WHITE GYRFALCON Fcilco islandus Bniiinich See Color Plate 50 Differing from adults only in being more heavily marked above and below, with dark brown in longitu- dinal streaks and spots. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In cavities of cliffs; com- posed of sticks, seaweed, and other materials which happen to be handy. Eggs : 2 to 4. whitish, so heavily spotted and suffused with different shades of reddish- brown as almost to appear uniformly of that color, with some spots of darker brown. Distribution. — .Arctic regions; resident in Green- land ; in winter rarely south to Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Maine. GRAY GYRFALCON Faico rusticolus .\. O. u. Description. — Differs from White Gyrfalcon only in color. .Vdclts : General color, gray with darker markings ; above about equally divided between the pale bkiish-gray and the darker bars, crescents, or spots; on head and neck, lighter shades I'reTailini) : under parts, whitish, striped, streaked, or spotted ivith dusky ; bars of tail, well marked, the light and dark ones about equal in width; bill, bluish; cere, and feet, bluish-gray; iris, brown. Young: Upper parts, browner; head, rusticolus Linncvns Xumber 354 more narrowlv streaked darker shades ; under with parts more heavily streaked. Nest and Eggs.— Nest: On cliffs or in Eggs: Not distinguishable from those of the Gyrfalcon. Distribution.— Arctic regions; breeds in America from Alaska east to southern Greenland ; m winter casual south to British Columbia, Kansas, Wis- consin. Ontario, and Maine. trees. White Arctic GYRFALCON Falco rusticolus gyrfaico Linnceus A. O, U. Xuniber 354a Other Name.— MacFarlane's Gyrfalcon. General Description. — Length. 24 inches ; spread of wings. 50 to 55 inches. Color above, grayish-brown ; below, white, streaked. Tarsus feathered half-way down the front and sides. Color. — Adults: Upper parts, brownish-gray or grayish-brown, slightly marked with buffy-white; head, unstreaked; under parts, ivhitc heavily streaked with qrayish-brown ; a pronounced black mustache ; tail closely barred with light and dark of about equal widths ; bill, bluish horn color ; legs, bluish-gray ; claws, black; iris, brown. Imm.\ture: Similar to adults, but .'^ce Color I^Iate 50 head sometimes slightly streaked with lighter, and back almost uniform. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: On ledges of cliffs; com- posed of sticks and small twigs and lined with feathers and other soft materials. Eggs ; 2 to 4, commonly 3 or 4, varying from dull yellowish-red to a deep burnt-umber, finely and evenly speckled with reddish- brown. Distribution. — .Arctic regions; breeds in Ellesmere Land, northern Greenland, and east to Franz Josef Land ; in winter casual south to Minnesota, New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine. 86 BIRDS OF AMERICA BLACK GYRFALCON Falco rusticolus obsoletus Gnielin A. O. U. Xumber 354b See Color Plate 50 Description. — A dark phase of the Gyrfalcon ; uni- lornily dusky or brownish-slate, upper parts without bars, except broken ones on tail and under parts almost black with a few inconspicuous streaks or spots of buff. Nest and Eggs. — Similar to those of the Gyrfalcon. Distribution. — Breeds in Ungava ; south in winter to Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, and Maine ; casually to New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. The White Gyrfalcon, the Gray Gyrfalcon. tiic Gyrfalcon, and the Black Gyrfalcon form a siib- gentis of the falco genus in the Falcon family, known as hicrofalco, a word signifying " sacred or noble Falcon." They are Arctic birds and never come very far south of the Arctic circle. All of these northern Falcons were formerly in great demand for the sport of hawking. Their usually they build near bird rocks from which they obtain the young without much trouble. He mentions having seen one with a yoimg Kitti- wake in each foot, and two Sandpipers carried in the same manner. He did not regard its rapidity of flight as very great. He had for years kept Pigeons and lost only two yotmg birds which were seized when at rest. Almost every day, Drawing by R. I. Brasher GYRFALCON (J nat. size) A visitor from " Greenland's icy mountains " flight is much swifter than that of the Peregrine or Duck Hawk, and they are very tcnaciotis of grrp when they have captured their prey, but they do not equal in dash and spirit the smaller Peregrine. The White Gyrfalcon is seldom foimd even in mid-winter south of the 50th parallel. According to Holboell they are the most abundant Falcon in Greenland, where they breed in January. They prey chiefly upon waterfowl and Ptarmigans ; especially in October and November, these Falcons would chase the old Pigeons imsuccess- fvilly. They were not very shy and were occa- sionally decoyed and killed by throwing a dead bird toward them. They go southerly along the coast of Green- land from September to November ; at this time thev are often seen fighting with the Ravens and will a]5proach qtiite close to the houses of the Danes. Courtesy of tho Nl.w York Suto Must.. Plate 51 FIH&T rtAK MALE DUCK HAWK F'll'" }>''t'grinu-^ AOULT FEMALE All 5 uat. size CHICKS A.-.J E.aG FALCONS 87 PRAIRIE FALCON Falco mexicanus Schlcgcl A. () I'. Number 355 Other Names. — Anioricaii Laiiiicr ( female ) or Ainericaii Lanncret (male). General Description. — [.eiiKtli : male, i8 iiiehes ; female, JO inches. Color above, brownish-ash ; below, white, spotted. Outer primary notched on inner web; back of tarsus, broadly bare. Color. — .\dults : .-\bove, brownish-ash, each feather with a paler border, crown more uniform, back of head and (Kj/'r more streaked; primaries, darker brown, sharply edged with paler; tail, pale brownish-gray with barring or indentations of whitish, tip, white; under parts, dull white marked everywhere except on throat with firm spots of dark brown, more drop-shaped on breast, more oval on abdomen, enlarging and tending to form bars on flanks, absent or very few on under tail- coverts ; a broad dark-brown streak from gape forming a mustache ; bill, dark bluish horn, yellow at base and below; feet, yellow; iris, brown. Young: Diflfer from adults in showing more light brown above and in being more heavily spotted below on a buff or ocher ground; feet, livid. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: On clifTs or on the steep faces of cut banks of streams; constructed of sticks with a lining of grass. Eggs: 2 to S, creamy-wdiite, almost entirely obscured with spots and splashes of cinnamon and chestnut. Distribution. — From eastern border of the Great Plains and from southern British Columbia and south- eastern Saskatchewan to southern Lower California and southern Mexico; casual east to Minnesota and Illinois. 'Ihc I'r.'iiric I'^alcon is the .\iiU'rican represen- tative of the Lanners and Lannerets of theeastern hemisphere. NX'itli short quick wing beats, like the Duck Hawk's flight, it sweeps over the west- ern prairies and sage brush deserts. It is a bird of the open, resorting to the perpendicular side of canons or isolated buttes to rear its young. From these commanding eminences its keen vision ranges over the many sqtiare miles of terri- tory from which it takes its toll of birds and small rodents, especially of ground squirrels. Though nrdin;irily shy these T'alcons are bold, daring hunters, pursuing and capturing their food with an im])etuosity which almost equals the Duck Hawk's. Their cry of I'Vert-wert-zuert-zvert-zvert is a more mellow call than that of other Hawks, resembling the notes of the Rough-leg at nesting time. They utter two other calls — a rattling k-r-rr, rising in pitch at end, and a whining " kruk " very similar to the " clap " of the Flicker. DUCK HAWK Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte A. O. U. Number 356a -See Color Plates 43, 51 Other Names. — Peregrine Falcon; .American Pere- grine; Great-looted Hawk; Wandering Falcon; Tercel (male ). General Description. — Length: male. 18 inches; female. 19 inches. Spread of wings, 40 to 46 inches. Color above, bluish-ash ; below, yellowish, barred. Outer primary notched on inner web ; tarsus broadly bare at the base, only slightly feathered in the front, and about the length of the middle toe with claw; upper section of bill with an additional point or tooth near the tip and a corresponding notch in the lower section. Color. — Adults: Feathers of extreme forehead, whitish; crown, sides of head to level of eyes behind, space in front and below eyes, dark slate color; rest of upper parts, a fine dark bluish-ash, all the feathers with paler edges but these lighter markings more obsolete on rump and upper tail-feathers ; tail crossed with 5 or 6 narrow bars of black, the one nearest the tip much broader, tail, tipped with white ; greater wing-coverts and secondaries barred ; primaries, dark dusky-black tipped with whitish; a strong black streak from gape forming a mustache, and almost cutting oiT the light yclloziish under parts, a patch of similar color on the side of the head ; throat Zi'hitish, usually unmarked, as is also the breast; rest of under parts, closely and regularly barred with blackish brown, more pronounced and larger on sides and under tail-coverts ; thigh feathers finely and regularly barred transversely with the same color, these markings tending to broad arrow- head shapes ; bill, bluish-black, more yellow at base ; cere, gape, and feet, yellow ; claws, blackish ; iris, dark brown. Young : The extreme forehead, lores, throat, and patch on side of head, plain pale tawny-white ; crown, streak behind eye, mustache, and entire upper parts. 88 BIRDS OF AMERICA plain brownish-dusky ; all the feathers, including coverts and secondaries, edged with lighter; primaries, darker dusky-brown tipped with lighter; tail, ashy, tipped with pale yellowish-white and crossed with 4 or 5 very narrow bars of light ash ; beneath, pale tawny or yellow- ish-white marked lightly on breast, more heavily below, with wedge-shaped longitudinal spots of deep brown; bill, bluish-horn ; cere and feet, dull yellow ; claws, black ; iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually in crevices on inaccessible cliffs, more rarely in natural cavities of trees ; no apparent attempt at any construction. Eggs : 3 or 4, dull white, usually so heavily colored with spots, blotches, and specks of reddish or dark brown as to obscure the ground color. Distribution. — North and South America ; breeds locally (e-xcept in northwest coast region) from Nor- ton Sound, Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Boothia Penin- sula, and western central Greenland south to central Lower California, Arizona, southwestern Te.xas, Kan- sas, Missouri, Indiana, Pennsylvania and Connecticut (in mountains to South Carolina) ; winters from south- ern British Columbia, Colorado, and New Jersey (occa- sionally further north) to the West Indies and Panama; occurs also in South America south to northern Chile. The Peregrine Falcon (Falco pcrci/riniis pcrc- ijriniis) of the Old World is the noble Falcon of the days when hawking was the chief of sports. Casually it is found in Greenland but its best known American representative is the Duck Hawk. The only difference between the two birds is in the coloration of the throat and upper breast ; in the Duck Hawk these are gen- erally unmarked, but in the Peregrine they are marked with blackish-brown. The quick wing beats resembling the flight of a Pigeon are quite different from the flight of the majority of other Hawks and readily identify the Duck Hawk in the field. Its strength and bearing apjjeal to our primitive sense of admira- tion for courage. \Miile such traits are admir- able, others less commendable cannot be ignored. The toll of life taken by the strong we accept as part of the scheme of things but wanton destruc- tion revolts us and a Duck Hawk is sometimes so carried away by lust of slaughter that it will strike bird after bird from a flock of Sandpipers and leave the victims where they fall. After the young are reared the parents proceed DUCK HAWK (! nat. size) A fierce destroyer but a splendid success as a bird Drawing by R. I. Brasher FALCONS 89 to exemplify the fitness of the name given them by the scientists — falco, sickle, pcrcijrinus, wandering, and aiuitiim, of the Dncks. They seek maritime districts and change their diet from Partridges, Pigeons, Flickers and the like to shore birds and Ducks. The usual method pursued in obtaining its prey is to rise in spirals until it is above the victim and then to drop directly ujjon it ; seldom is it unsuccessful. Sometimes it captures its victims by direct chase or by a sudden assault. That they do not always look carefully before they strike was proved by one which passed over me while I was concealed in a duck-blind, struck one of the decoys, and knocked the head off. This is not an unusual incident, declare baymen who do a great deal of Duck shooting. Considering the peculiar advantages the Duck Hawk possesses in the struggle for existence, it is remarkable how comparatively rare it is. Among birds it has no superior. The inacces- sible location of its nest prevents animal depre- dations ; even a wild-cat would think twice before attacking its home. The insatiable " egg-collec- tor " is its worst enemy. U. 1. Brasher. Peak's l-'alcon {luilco pcrcyrinus pcalei) is a duskier slate above than the Duck Hawk, its crown is like its back, its breast is more heavily spotted with blackish, and there are broad bars of dusky on its under parts. This Black Hawk, as it is also called, inhabits the Pacific coast region from the Aleutian Islands to Oregon. It breeds throughout its range and is accused, in Alaska, of living largely on Auklets and Mur- relets. PIGEON HAWK Falco columbarius columbarius Liinucus \. O. U. Number 357 See Color Plate 52 Other Names. — Pigeon Falcon ; American Merlin ; Bulk-t Hawk : Little Blue Corporal. General Description. — Length ; male, 1 1 inches ; female, 13 inches. Color above, dark brown ; below, whitish. Two outer primaries notched on inner webs ; tarsus but slightly feathered in front, broadly bare on back, and longer than middle toe without claw ; not more than 4 blackish or S light bands crossing the tail. Color. — Adults in Norm.-\l Plumage (as usually seen) ; Above, dark umber-brown, interrupted on neck by whitish streaks, most of feathers with paler edges and dark shaft lines; primaries, blackish with lighter tips and numerous oval transverse spots of cinnamon on inner webs ; tail, umber-brown barred with about four narrow light ocher bands and tipped with white ; beneath vary- ing from dull white to a rich warm buff heavily streaked longitudinally with dark umber-brown except on throat which is distinctly whitish and marked only with fine shaft streaks : sides of head, bufT finely penciled with dark streaks merging into a mustache extending from gape to bottom of throat ; forehead and spot in front of eye. whitish; a dark line above and behind eye; bill, bluish horn ; cere and feet, chrome yellow ; claws, black ; iris, deep brown. Adult Male in Full Plum- ace: Forehead, line over eye, lores, and throat, white; crown, back, shoulders, rump, coverts, and secondaries, fine purplish ash ; crown, streaked with black ; feathers of back, shoulders, and coverts with a strong distinct black shaft line; primary coverts barred with dusky; tail, grayish-ash banded with two exposed bars of blackish and a broad subterminal one of the same color tipped with white ; primaries, deep dusky edged with whitish and with a number of transverse oval spots of whitish on inner web ; the white line over eye continued to back of neck; sides of head, neck all around, breast, and under parts in general, a fine warm bufTy, streaked narrowly on cheeks and sides of head, more strongly on neck and beneath, with blackish ; the thigh feathers merely with black shaft streaks; a narrow but distinct dusky mustache ; bill, bluish-horn ; cere, skin around eye, and feet, chrome-yellow ; claws, black ; iris, deep brown. Young : Practically the same as normal plum- age of adults, but birds of the year are usually lighter with more tawny and wider ed,ges of feathers on upper parts. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : On ledges, in branches of trees, or, occasionally, in a hollow tree ; the tree nests constructed of sticks, weed stems, grass, or moss and lined with feathers and strips of soft inner bark; the ledge nests with very little material. Eggs : 4 or 5, white, thinly spotted, evenly or wreathed around either end, or so heavily splashed and blotched with rich chestnut-brown as to obscure the ground color. Distribution. — North .'\merica to northern South America ; breeds from northwestern Alaska and north- western Mackenzie south in the mountains to California and southern Oregon, and from central Keewatin, northern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to northern Michigan, central Ontario, and Maine ; winters from California and the Gulf States (casually further north) south through Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies to Ecuador and Venezuela. 90 BIRDS OF AMERICA The Pigeon Hawk is a stocky, well-built, im- petuous miniature of the Duck Hawk, which it closely resembles in color and habits. It is widely distributed but nowhere common in the United States. This is fortunate, for its princi- pal food is birds. Many migrants from the New England States cross the Sound to Long Island, following the Great South Beach westward. I have found this Hawk most abundant there during October, pur- suing the shore birds, especially Sanderlings and Ringed Plovers. Strong northwest winds are prevalent along this beach in the autumn and the Pigeon Hawks tack across the wind on their way westward and south. The short " board " is made directly into the wind's eye, then a long slant with the breeze on the quarter carries them well on their way to the westward. Sometimes a number of Hawks of different species can be seen as far as the eye can reach up and down the beach going through these maneuvers, crossing and recrossing each other on the ditTerent " tacks." A darker colored form of the Pigeon Hawk is the Black Pigeon Hawk or Black Merlin ( Falco cuUiiiiburiiis sitcklcyi). The throat of the male is streaked with black, and the rest of the lower parts are brownish-black with chestnut and whitish markings ; the lower parts of the female and the young male are heavily marked with dusky and the spotting of the wings is faint or absent. It inhabits the northwest coast region from northern California to Sitka, Alaska, and it is similar to the stock species in nesting and habits. Richardson's Pigeon Hawk or Richardson's Merlin (Falco coliinibariits richardsoni) averages lighter in coloration than the Pigeon Hawk and its tail is crossed by five dark bands and six light ones. Otherwise, in color, in habits, and in nesting it is similar to the Pigeon Hawk. It is found in the interior of western North America ; it breeds in the region of the Great Plains from southern Alberta and the middle of the Sas- katchewan valley to northern Montana and North Dakota. It winters south to southern Lower California, northwestern Mexico, and southern Texas. It has also been seen in California, Missouri, and South Carolina. R. I. Brasher. SPARROW HAWK Falco sparverius sparverius L'uinwus A. O. U. Xumber 360 See Color Plate 52 Other Names. — American Sparrow Hawk ; American Kestrel: Rusty-crowned Falcon; Grasshopper Hawk; Mouse Hawk ; Kitty Hawk ; Windhover ; Short-winged Hawk. General Description. — Length. 11 inches. Color above, cinnamon-rufous; below, pale rusty and whitish. Two outer primaries notched on inner webs ; tarsus but slightly feathered in the front, broadly bare on back, and decidedly longer than the middle toe. Color. — AnuLT Male: Crown and back of head to about level of eyes, fine bluish-ash. enclosing a patch of chestnut; sides and back of neck, yellowish-white with a spot of dusky-ash on each side of neck; back and shoulders, cinnamon rufous, evenly barred with black; wing-coverts and secondaries, fine bluish-ash, the middle coverts and inner secondaries with subterminal wedge- shaped spots of black; primaries, pale dusky tipped with yellowish; tail, cinnamon rufous with a broad subterminal bar of black tipped with white; lores, throat, and sides of head, white with o black streak below eye and another borderinij the tvhite area behind ; breast and upper abdomen, pale rusty; rest of under parts, whitish spotted on lower breast with small round blackish dots, on flanks with paler blackish wedge-shaped spots; under tail-coverts, pure white; outer tail-feathers, mostly white with black bars: bill, pale bluish-horn ; cere, feet, and bare skin around eye, yellow; claws, black; iris, deep brown. .'Vdult Fem.\le: Head and neck, as in adult male but usually with fine black shaft streaks on crown ; back, shoulders, wing- coverts, secondaries, rump, and tail, cinnamon rufous; tail, banded with 5 or 6 imperfect black bars, the sub- terminal one broader, more distinct, feathers tipped with white; secondaries, dusky centrally, rufous show- ing as narrow edgings and tips, rest of upper parts including the coverts, barred with dusky ; primaries, grayish dusky edged with yellowish-white ; chest and lower parts in general pale yellowish-white with pale brownish longitudinal streaks; thigh feathers more whitish and unmarked: bill, feet, etc., as in adult male. Nest and Eggs. — Eggs : Deposited in natural cavities of trees, deserted Woodpecker holes, in rock cavities, holes in banks, artificial nesting boxes, or in crannies of outbuildings, without nesting material : 4 or 5, ground color varying from creamy-white to reddish- buflf, specked, spotted or clouded with shades of Indian red and brown, usually largest and more numerous or sometimes wreathed at greater end ; some eggs minutely dotted all over with dark brown, some so heavily splashed as to conceal the ground color. Courtesy of the New York State Museum Plate 52 -e SPARROW HAWK Fulco sparverius sparrerius Linnaeus MALe FEMALE PIGEON HAWK Fnlco columbarius cotumbaTius Linnaeus ADULT IMMATURE AH i nat. size FALCONS 91 Distribution. — Xortli America east oi the Kocky Mountains ; breeds ironi the Upper Yukon, northwest- ern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, and Newfoundland soutl) to Texas and the eastern Gulf States (except I'lorida) ; winters from Kansas, Indiana, Ohio, and Massachusetts south tlirouKh Mexico to Costa Rica. The .Sparrow Hawk i,-; the smallest and lln' most sociable of our Hawks ; it often nests in hollows of old orchard trees near farm houses or in dead trees alongside of roads. " Windhover " is a very a])i)ropriate name, for they are much given to hovering over fields and pastures; they remain almost stationary for many miniUes suspended in the air with quick-beating wings, and scan the ground below for grass- hoi)pers and mice. Its familiar call of killy- killy-killy-killy-killy-killy attracts attention to its position. Small birds arc sometimes ca])tured, but so rarely that I have not in many years' observa- tions seen the deed ])erformed, although 1 have found feathers of other birds in their nests. Of all the Falcons, the Sparrow Hawk is the most beneficial. Of its food, Dr. A. K. Fisher says : " .'Xt times it attacks small birds and young chickens, but these irregularities are so infre- quent that they are more than outweighed by its good services in destroying insects and mice. Grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects form its principal food during the warm months, while mice predominate during the rest of the year. Terrestrial catcr])illars. beetles, and spiders also are eaten to a considerable extent. As might be expected, a large proportion of the birds captured are taken during the nesting season, the Hawks then having less time to procure their favorite food. It is at this time also that they commit depredations in poultry yards. During late fall and winter, meadow mice and house mice form a large part of their food, the former being taken in fields and meadows and the latter around corn stacks and about barns and outbuildings." R. L Brasher. The Desert Sparrow Hawk ( Faico sparvcrius pliahrna) is larger than the stock form, with longer tail ; its colors are paler, with more rufous .md a larger crown patch. The female has the dark bars of upper parts narrower ; those of tail more broken or incomplete. It inhabits western North .'\merica, breeds from British Columbia and southwestern Saskatchewan south to south- ern California, New Mexico, and western Texas east to Wyoming and western Nebraska, and winters from British Columbia and Colorado south to Guatemala. Photo by S. A. Lfittmii't- SPARROW HAWK The smallest and most sociable of our Hawks The Little Sparrow Hawk ( Falco sparvcrius panhts) has been honored with subspecific dis- tinction because specimens smaller than the aver- age have been captured in Florida, beyond the confines of which State it is requested not to roam ! 92 BIRDS OF AMERICA CARACARAS Order Raptores ; suborder Falconcs ; family FalconidcB ; subfamily PolyborincE ]HE Caracaras are vulture-like Hawks found chiefly in Central and South America. They are diurnal birds of prey. The name is an attempt to repro- duce in syllables the bird's raucous cry. All of the species have long, unfeathered legs and plumage in which black and white predominate. The feathers on the crown are elongated sufficiently to form a crest which can be raised at will, and there are well developed bristles on the cheeks. The Caracaras are essentiallj' carrion feeders and for this reason they are valuable, especially in the cattle-raising regions in South America where they have become quite abundant. "Their flight is strong, rapid, and direct, and bears no resemblance to that of a Vulture." (Chapman). The Caracaras are divided into three genera, Polyborus, Milvago, and Ibycter, of which the first-named comprises four species, including the Audubon Caracara. All of these birds build in trees, or on ledges, large nests composed of sticks and leaves, and lay two or three eggs thickly speckled and blotched. General Description. — Length. 25 inches parts whitish, barred with black; rest of plumage black. Skin of face nearly bare, the chin and sides of head having blackish bristles ; bill, long, compressed, and slightly hooked ; tarsus, nearly twice as long as middle toe without claw. Color. — Adults : Throat, neck all around, front part of back, and breast, dull whitish barred with black; upper and under tail-coverts, white; tail dull white with numerous bars of blackish, the terminal one being much broader than the others; crown and rest of plumage, blackish ; bill, dull horn ; cere, red or yellow ; feet, yellow; claws, black; iris, brown. Young: Plum- AUDUBON'S CARACARA Polyborus cheriway (Jacquin) A. O. U. Number 362 Fore age more brown, darker markings of body, longitudinal streaks, not transverse bars ; tail, as in adult. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Built in trees, bushes, sometimes in cliffs ; large bulky structures composed of branches lined with small sticks, roots, and grasses, and witli a slight depression. Eggs: 2 or 3, light chestnut to dark reddish or umber-brown, speckled, blotched, or clouded with yellowish or rufous-brown, burnt-umber, or purple madder, sometimes distributed over entire egg; in others more numerous at one end. Distribution. — Northern Lower California, Arizona, Texas, and Florida south to Guiana and Ecuador; acci- dental in Ontario. Photn by O. E. Baynard Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Aud. Soc. AUDUBON'S CARACARA. ONE DAY OLD, AT EDGE OF NEST Perched upright in the cactus or niesquite, with a strange grandfatherly appearance, or flying slowly with stift' outstretched neck, Audubon's Caracara strikes the observer with singular gro- tesqueness. An odd performance in which it in- dulges is to throw the head so far backward as to touch the shoulder feathers, emitting while in this position, its hoarse raucous call. Among themselves they are quarrelsome, stronger indi- viduals attacking and sometimes severely injur- ing weaker ones. These fracases, though apparently starting in a spirit of play, often end in a general fight. Though usually carrion feeders, in some mari- time locations the Caracaras lay tribute on Peli- cans as they come ashore, compelling them by attacks from above to disgorge the fish with which their pouches are filled. OSPREYS 93 '"^xijj Drawing by R. I. Brasher AUDITBON'S CARACARA (J nat. size) Perched upright in a cactus, it has a strange grandfatherly appearance OSPREYS Order Raptores ; suborder Falcoacs ; family Pandionidcc EWTON, the English ornithologist, explained that " Ospray " or " Osprey " is " a word said to be corrupted from ' ossifrage,' in Latin Ossijraga, bone-breaker. The Ossifraga of Pliny and some other classical writers seems to have been the Lammergeier; but the name, not inapplicable in that case, has been transferred — through a not uncommon but inexplicable confusion — to another bird which is no breaker of bones, save incidentally those of the fish it devours." Three or four species of Ospreys have been described, but most ornithologists are now agreed that there is but a single true species, the European Osprey (Pandion haliactus), of which the American Osprey and the Australian Fishing Eagle are subspecies. In all of these forms the feet are large, ver\' strong, equipped with scale-like processes, and with the claws long, sharp, and powerful; the outer toe is reversible, like that of the Owls; the legs are long and closely feathered. The bill has no tooth, but is much hooked. The plumage is oily and overlapping, the cjuills and tail-feathers pointed and rigid. The wings are long and' pointed, the tail short. The Ospreys, or Fish Hawks, as they are usually called in America, have a very wide distribution, being found ever\-where except in New Zealand, Iceland, Australia, the southern part of South America and, of course, the extreme Arctic and Antarctic regions. Their food consists solely of fish taken alive. Because of this characteristic they are never found far from water in which fash may be had. Since the Ospreys cannot dive, as do the Ducks, the fish they catch are of the varieties found in shallow water or near the surface. V^ -ft 94 BIRDS OF AMERICA The Ospreys are not more sociable than other raptorial birds; but an abundant food supply together with freedom from interference will often result in a number of them nesting near one another, and sometimes quite a large colony will develop. They return year after year to the same site and even rehabilitate the old nests by the addition of more material. OSPREY Pandion haliaetus carolinensis (GjiicUii) A. O. U. Xumber 364 See Color Plate 4,3 Other Names. — American Osprey ; Fish Hawk; Fishing Eagle. General Description. — Length, 2 feet : spread of wings. 4^4 to 5'/2 feet. Upper parts, dark brown : head and under parts, white. Color. — Adults; Head, neck, and entire lozver parts, pure white; a broad brownish-black stripe across upper side of head to nape; head narrowly streaked with blackish coalescing toward center ; nape, pale yellowish- white thinly streaked ; breast with large heart-shaped spots of brown on each feather, the shaft black (these spots more numerous in female, fewer in male) ; rest of lower parts unmarked ; bach, shoulders, ivings, and tail, deep burnt-umber with a faint purplish gloss; tail barred with seven even bands of dusky, inner webs and tip, white ; the feathers of the upper parts are edged with paler; bill, bluish-black; cere and feet, grayish- blue; claws, black; iris, yellow or red. Young; More marked with buflfy and brownish on neck and under parts; upper parts, edged and notched with whitish; tail, more barred. Nest and Eggs. — Nest ; In a tree or on the ground ; composed principally of coarse sticks, seaweed, and any old rubbish which is handy. Eggs: 2 to 4, usually 3, yellowish or dull white, spotted and blotched with Indian red and different shades of brown, sometimes so heavily at the large end as to obscure the ground color ; some marked at small end. and others almost plain. Distribution. — North and South America; breeds from northwestern .'Maska. northwestern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to Lower California, western Me.xico, and the Gulf coast; winters from the southern United States through Lower California and Mexico to the West Indies and Central America ; occurs also in South America south to Peru and Paraguay. Drawing by R. I. Brasher OSPREY (S nat. size) His feet are perfect fish traps ^'IW^'^'S w a in H o o H H M W O [95] 96 BIRDS OF AMERICA The Osprey's feet, with their rough, spiny pro- jections, long and well-curved claws, are perfect fish traps : add powerful wings and tail, with plenty of muscular energy to operate them, and we have a combination which rarely misses its finny prey. Its keenness of vision is of a very high order, and it is able to see a neutral colored fish from a height of many feet. Though most plunges begin within a hundred feet or so of the surface, dives of three hundred or more feet are not un- common. Kingfishers seize their prey with their bill but the Osprey, like other raptorial birds, uses its feet only. The captive is always car- ried head forward. Some authorities suggest that this position makes wind resistance less, but it seems more reasonable to me to suppose that placing the talons one in front and one behind is done the better to control the spasmodic jerks of the expiring fish. Occasionally the Osprey mistakes the size of its quarry, and I saw one on the St. Lucie River in Florida dragged under by a large intended victim. The Osprey finally succeeded in getting its claws free, but was so nearly drowned that it lay on the yacht's deck for ten minutes before recovering sufficiently to fly. Where protected — and I am glad to say that is everywhere in the East — it often nests in colonies, one of the largest of which is on Gardi- ners Island, off the eastern end of Long Island. Its harmless character is so well understood by the Purple Crackles that frequently they build their own homes in the interstices of the large bulky nest which the Fish Hawk builds. R. I. Brasher. Photograph by H. T. Middletun OSPREY OWLS 97 OWLS Order Raptores; suborder Striges; families Aliiconida and Strigidw ]\VLS arc nnctvirnal birds of pre}' and in the field of usefulness are the com- plement of the Hawks — the Hawks working by day and the Owls by night. Like the other raptorial birds Owls capture their prey with their feet. If the victim is not too large, it is swallowed entire and the hair and bones disgorged afterward in the form of pellets. It is the examinations of these pellets which have proved beyond a doubt that the Owls should be classified among the beneficial birds. The eyes of Owls are directed forward so that both look in the same direc- tion and to look to the side they are obliged to turn the head: the eyes are surrounded by radiating systems of feathers called facial disks, which are bounded, except directly in front, by a line or rim of small, narrow, stiff, com- pactly webbed, differently formed, and somewhat recurved feathers. For scientific purposes the Owls are divided into two families, the Aluconidcc, or Barn Owls, and the Strigidw, which includes the Horned or Eared Owls, the Barred Owls, the Screech Owls, and all the other Owls. Sjjcaking generally, the Barn Uwls have the face heart-shaped, with the lower apex very prominent. The various species have a complete and conspicuous facial ruff, relatively small eyes, elongated bill, long legs with feathering on the posterior part reversed (pointed inward), inner toe as long as the middle toe, the head without ear-tufts. The eyes are very small (beadlike), surrounded by a verj- conspicuous line of differently formed feathers. The wing is ver}* long; the tail less than half as long as the wing and more or less distinctly notched. The claws are very long and sharp. The plumage coloration is prevailing white, buff, or tawny, and is usually more or less freckled or otherwise variegated (at least on the upper parts) with brown or dusky. The range of the genus is nearly cosmopolitan, the colder regions excepted. Nearly 30 forms are recognized, of which about one-third are American, but only one of which is found in the United States. Unlike the Barn Owls, the Strigidcc have the face more or less circular, or at least not pointed below, while the leg-feathers (if present) are not reversed or recurved, but are pointed downward. The head is frequently surmounted by a pair of more or less distinct, often very conspicuous, ear- or horn-like tufts of feathers, and the eyes are, as a rule, large and prominent; but there are numerous genera in which these features are not present. As in the Barn Owls, the Strigidcc have the plumage remarkably full, soft, and downy, and in coloration more or less protective. The sexes are invariably colored essentially alike. Frequently the plumage is dichromatic, different individuals of the same species, wholly independent of sex or age, differing remarkably in coloration, the extreme phases being represented by birds of a gray or brownish gray color on the one hand and others of a more or less cinnamon-rufous or brick-red hue, individuals of intermediate coloration being usually much less numerous than those representing the extremes. These distinct phases are constant from first plumage to old age, and are frequently to be found in one brood of young. The Strigidcc are more nearh- cosmopolitan than the Barn Owls, being absent only from Polynesia, representatives of the family existing in Madagascar, New Zealand, the Hawaiian Islands and the Arctic districts. Thirty recent genera and nearly three hundred species and subspecies are recognized, of which eighteen genera and about one hundred species (including subspecies) are American. Owls generally place their nests in holes in trees or banks, or they may use the deserted nest of a Hawk or a Crow. The eggs are from three to five in number and are invariably pure white. Young Owls are thickly covered with white down. 98 BIRDS OF AMERICA BARN OWL Aluco pratincola (Bonaparte) A. O- U. Number 365 See Color Plate 53 Other Names. — Monkey-laced Owl; Golcien Owl; White Owl; Munkey Owl; American Barn Owl. General Description. — Length, 18 inches ; spread of wings, 44 inches. Plumage, whitish-tawny, speckled with black. Color. — Average Plumage; Ground color of upper parts, bright ochraccoiis-buff but this overlaid with a delicate mottling of dusky and grayish-ivhitc, forming a mottled grayish effect, each feather, except of wings and tail, with a streak of black inclosing a small heart- shaped, roundish, or drop-shaped (rarely linear) sub- terminal spot of white; wings with the darker mottlings condensed into indistinct transverse bands, which are about 4 in number on secondaries and 5 on primaries ; tail, varying from ochraceous-buff to white, mottled with dusky, and crossed by about five bands of mottled dusky; /arr, ic/nVc, tinged with purpKsh-brown, and with an area of dark red-brown in front of and narrowly surrounding eye ; facial circle or rim, soft ochra- ceous-buff above (down to ears), deeper ochraceous- buff below, where feathers of rear border are tipped with dark brown; under parts, zvbite, but this suffused or overlaid by ochraceous-buff and with numerous small but distinct spots or dots of black; bill, dull yellowish; iris, dark brown. Daric Extreme ; Under parts, wholly ochraceous-buff, speckled with black; upper parts as in average plumage or somewhat darker; tace more strongly tinged with purplish-brown. Light E.xtreme: Face (except spot below eye) and entire under parts, pure white, the latter sometimes immaculate ; facial rim, white with tips of feathers (in part, at least) orange-buff; wing and tail, sometimes uniformly mottled or the latter sometimes white with bands of mottled dusky. Nest and Eggs. — Nest ; .Almost anywhere — in church towers, outbuildings, hollow trees, holes in steep banks, deserted nests, or even in ground burrows ; constructed of a few sticks, hay, straw, bones, or other refuse. Eggs: 3 to 11, usually 5 to 7, dull white, unspotted. Distribution. — Greater part of United States and Mexico ; breeding north to Long Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, western New York, Ohio, northern Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Nebraska, Colo- rado, and upper Sacramento valley, northern Cali- fornia, and occurring, more or less irregularly, farther northward to Massachusetts, Vermont, Ontario, Michi- gan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Oregon, and southern British Columbia; southward over whole of Mexico, whole of Lower California, and eastern Central America to eastern Nicaragua, at least in v/inter. YOUNG BARN OWLS Co'iritsy of thy N-L'w Yo'W Stat'-- Mosoum Pi.it.- ^niilnirtr) LONG-EARED OWL Ano u'lUttuiaiius (Ijussoii) OWLS 99 Some years ago, 1 had a gcjod o])|)()riuiiity to make an intimate study of a I'arn (Jwl family. They had a nest in the gable end of my neigh- bor's barn and occupiecl it for a nunil)er of years. This year they had three young, and at three weeks old they were the funniest, fuzziest, " monkey-faced " little creatures 1 had ever seen. They blinked, snapped their bills, and hissed like a box full of snakes. They bobbed and screwed around in more funny attitudes than any con- tortionist you ever saw. We crept out one night and hid in a brush heap by the barn. Before long the scratching and soft hissing of the young Owls told us that their breakfast time had come. The curtain of the night had fallen. The day creatures were at rest. Suddenly a shadow flared across the dim-lit sky. The young Owls in some way knew of the approach of food, for there was a sudden out- burst in the nest box like the whistle of escaping steam. .Vgain and again the shadow came and went. Then 1 crept into the barn, felt m\' way up and edged along the rafters to the old box. As soon as food was brought, I lit a match and saw one of the half-grown young tearing the head from the body of a young gopher. Barn Owls are always hungry. They will eat their own weight in food every night, and more, if they can get it. To supply such ravenous children, their parents ransack the gardens, fields and orchards industriously night after night and catch as many mice, gophers, and other ground creatures as a dozen cats. For this reason, it would be difficult to find birds that are more use- ful about any farming community. Yet many times people kill these Owls through ignorance of their value or from idle curiosity. A case is on record where a half-grown Barn Owl was given all the mice it could eat. It swallowed eight, one after another and the ninth followed all but the tail, which for a long time hung out of the bird's mouth. In three hours, this same bird was ready for a second meal and swallowed four more mice. The Owl is not jjarticular when he eats. He put his feet on his game to hold it, then tears it to pieces with his hooked beak, swallowing the entire animal, meat, bones, fur, and all. In the stomach, the nutritions portions are absorbed and the indigestible matter is formed into round pellets and disgorged. About the Owl's roost or Vol.. II— 8 near its home, one may often fmd these ])cllets in great numbers. A scientist, by examining these, can tell exactly what the bird lias been eating. He can also get a careful estimate of the size and number of the Owl's meals. The best known record we have concerning the food of the I'arn Owl is that which was made Photo by tj. A. LultriJi;u BARN OWL It is always hungry and will eat its own weight in food every night from a pair that occupied one of the towers of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, D. C. Dr. A. K. Fisher, who is our greatest authority on the food of Hawks and Owls, examined two hundred pellets from this pair of birds. These showed a total of 454 skulls. There were 225 meadow mice, 2 pine mice, 179 house mice, 20 rats, 6 jumping mice, 20 shrew\s, i star-nosed mole and i Vesper Sparrow. WlLLI.\M L. Fl.VLEV. 100 BIRDS OF AMERICA Other Names. — American Long-cared Owl ; Lesser Horned Owl. General Description. — Length, i6 inches; spread of wings, 40 inches. Color above, a mottling of blackisli- brown and grayish-white ; below, white and buff, barred and spotted with brown. Ear-tufts conspicuous. Color. — AnuLTS : Above, mottled with blackish- brown and grayish-white, the former predominating, especially on back ; shoulders with a few irregular, in- distinct spots of white on outer webs ; primary coverts, dusky with transverse series of mottled grayish spots, these becoming more buffy basally ; ground color of pri- maries, grayisli, especially on inner quills, passing into buffy basally (extensively on outer quills), the grayish portion finely mottled, transversely, with dusky, and crossed by about seven transverse series of square blackish-brown spots, those in front about as wide as the buffy or mottled grayish interspaces ; secondaries crossed by about nine or ten bands of dusky; general color of wing-coverts like back, but growing paler toward edge of wing, their tips also pale (sometimes nearly white); tail banded like secondaries; ear-tufts with center portion (broadly) plain black, the edges of the feathers (broadly) buff, passing into white (usually broken by blackish lines or mottling) terminally; fore- head and behind ears minutely speckled with blackish and white ; " eyebrows " and lores, grayish-white, the eyes surrounded by blackish, this widest in front, above, and below ; face, plain dull ochraceous ; facial disk, black becoming broken into a variegated collar across LONG-EARED OWL Asio wilsonianus (Lesson) A. O. V. .\umber 366 See Color I'late 53 Owl; Cat I'll t ' " R. W. Shiifel.lt LONG-EARED OWL An industrious mouser, doing an enormous amount of good throat; chin and upper throat, plain white; general color of under parts, buff, the exposed surface of the feathers, however, white ; breast with large longitudinal center blotches of clear sooty-brown; sides and flanks Photograph by H. T. Middleton LONG-EARED OWL With ear-tufts elevated with center stripes of sooty-brown crossed by as broad, or broader, transverse bars of the same; abdomen, leg plumes, and legs, plain buff, passing into nearly white on lower leg and on toes, the thigh-plumes usually with a few arrowhead spots of brownish ; under tail-coverts with center narrow stripes or streaks of dusky, these Y-shaped forward ; under wing-coverts, plain ochra- ceous, the under primary coverts blackish-brown, form- ing a conspciuous spot; bill, dull black; iris, bright lemon-yellow. Young: Wing- and tail-feathers (if developed) as in adults; other portions broadly barred with blackish-brown and grayish-white, the latter pre- dominating anteriorly; "eyebrows" and loral bristles, black; legs, white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : Built in dense growth of coniferous trees, from 10 to 40 feet up, a carelessly made affair of sticks and lined with grass, old leaves, or feathers ; frequently an old Crow's, Hawk's or squirrel's nest is appropriated and repaired ; more rarely it is placed on the ground. Eggs : 3 to 7, usually 4 or 5, white. Distribution. — Temperate North .America ; north to Newfoundland, southern Quebec, northwestern Ontario, southern Keewatin, southern Mackenzie, British Colum- bia, and coast of southern .Maska ; breeding southward to Virginia, Arkansas, northern Texas, southern Cali- fornia, etc.; winters over greater part of its range and southward to central Mexico. OWLS lOI Most Owls whose habits arc essentially noc- turnal pass the daylight hours in hollow trees or in other cavities or recesses in which little or no lij^'ht can enter. The Long-eared species, how- ever, though it does all of its hunting at night usually spends the day perched in thick foliage of evergreen or other densely leaved trees. When discovered in such a hiding ])lace its characteris- tic performance is to raise itself to its full height, compress its feathers close to its body and ele- vate its ear-tufts, in which protective and rather comical pose, it looks more like a stub, or " a piece of weatherbeaten bark than a bird." Unlike that of the Great Horned Owl and other members of the Owl family, this bird's flight is rather wavering and uncertain, suggest- ing that of a \\'hii)-i)oor-wil! ; but like theirs it is entirclv noiseless, and silence is, of course, more effective than mere sjieed with a great rushing of wings would be to a bird of its habits. It has several characteristic cries, one of which re- sembles the yap] ling of small dogs, and another the mew-ing of kittens, while at close quarters with an intruder it is likely to snap its beak and hiss with a great show of ferocity. This Owl is not infrequently seen in considerable flocks. The Long-eared Owl is an industrious niouscr, and molests comparatively few birds. Dr. I'isher examined 107 stomachs of this Owl, of which fifteen were empty. Of the ninety-two remaining, eighty-six, or over 93 per cent., con- tainecl riMuains of small mammals. As the bird Photo by H. K. Job Courtesy of Outini; Pub. Co. YOUNG LONG-EARED OWLS is common all over the United States, it does an enormous amount of good. Like the Sparrow TIawk, this Owl is easily destroyed, and so is one (if the greatest sufferers when bounties are paid for the destruction of birds of prey. SHORT-EARED OWL Asio flammeus (Fontoppidan) \. (I. l_'. Xviniher 307 See Color Plate 56 Other Names. — Marsh Owl ; Swamp Owl ; Prairie Owl. General Description. — Length, 14 inches; spread of wings. 42 inches. Color, a variegation of yellowish- white and dark brown. Ear-tufts, rudimentary and inconspicuous. Color. — .\dults : General color of head, neck, back, shoulders, rump, and under parts, light ochraceous to buffy-white (the individual variation being very great), each feather, e.xcept on rump, with a center stripe of dark brown or blackish-brown, the stripes broadest on shoulders, back of head, hindneck, back, and chest with the ochraceous (or bufTy) and brown about equal in extent, but on the under parts the brown stripes becoming gradually narrower behind, until on abdomen and sides they form narrow lines ; flanks, legs, anal region, and under tail-coverts, immaculate, the last nearly (sometimes quite) pure white, the legs more deeply buflfy or ochraceous; rump more reddish-bufTy or ochraceous, with indistinct crescentic markings of brown ; wing-coverts coarsely variegated with irregular markings of dusky-brown and ochraceous or bufTy, the latter in form of indentations or confluent spots along edges of feathers, broadest on outer webs ; secondaries, dusky-brown crossed by about five bands of ochraceous or huffy, the last one terminal ; primaries, ochraceous or bulT on inner two-thirds (more or less), the end portion dusky-brown, tipped (broadly) with huffy, this becoming indistinct or obsolete on longest quills, the dusky-brown continued in three to five irregularly transverse series of square spots on outer webs, leaving, however, a large basal area of plain ochraceous or huffy, which sometimes passes into white in front; primary coverts, plain blackish-brown, with one or two indistinct transverse series of ochraceous spots on mid , « >-/<:. ^-:/^.^. <^ ^..,tClf*nit^^r',, SNOWY OWL Xjictea niictea (I.inuaeus) GREAT GRAY OWL. Sr'Wi«;/(.^ lichulusii ni.hulii.iu (.1. K. Korstcrl AU Yi nat. size BARRED OWL tutrix rttriti varia I'.arton OWLS 103 ear openings arc much larger, in fact almost cavernous in their proportions. This remark- able development is due to the bird's dependence upon its sense of hearing. For in the long grass the movements of much of its prey cannot be seen, and must therefore be heard; and close observation of the Owl will show that much of its hunting is done with its ears rather than eyes. Of the economic value of this Owl, Dr. A. K. Fisher reports : " Fully 75 per cent, of its food consists of mice; as many as six of these mam- mals have been foimd in one stomach. In the West it proI)al)ly feeds also on the small ground squirrels. .Among birds, the Sparrows inhabit- ing the meadows and prairies are most often taken. In an interesting article by Peter .Adair, in the ' .Annals ' of Scottish Natural History for October, 1H93, on the disappearance of the short- tailed vole that caused the vole i)lague in Scot- land in 1890-1892, the statement is made that farmers and shepherds attribute its disappear- ance largely to its natural enemies, stress being laid on the services of the Owl, Kestrel, Rook, and Black-headed Cull among birds and the stoat and weasel among mammals. These men are also of the opinion that this vole ])laguc resulted from the destruction of birds of i)rey. When the plague first began the Short-eared Owl was hardly known in the district, but. swarming thither, it bred till it was so numerous that it be- came an important factor in reducing the num- ber of voles." BARRED OWL Strix varia varia Barton .\. O. U. Xumber 368 See Color I'latc 54 Other Names.— Hoot Owl ; Rain Owl ; Wood Owl ; Rmnul-lK-ailc(l Owl: Swamp Owl. General Description. — Length. JO inches; spread of wiii.t;^. 44 inclics. Plumage, brown, barred with whitish. No car-tufts or liorns. Color. — Adults: Fore and nppcr jiarts. broadly and rcfiularly barred zcilli pale buff and deep brown, the latter color always terminal, the brown bars rather broader than the paler ones on upper parts, but on the neck and chest rather narrower : breast also barred with brown and whitish, but the brown bars connected by a center streak, thus separating the whitish into pairs of spots on opposite webs; each feather of atxlomen, sides, and flanks with a broad center longitudinal stripe of darker brown, the under tail-coverts with similar but rather narrower stripes ; anal region immaculate buffy or buffy-white ; legs with numerous but rather faint trans- verse spots or bars of brown ; general color of wings and tail, brown ; middle and greater coverts with roundish transverse spots of white on outer webs, the lesser coverts, plain deep brown ; secondaries, crossed by about six bands of pale grayish-brov/n passing into paler on edges, the terminal band passing into whitish on margin; primary coverts with four bands of darker buflfy-brown or ochraceous-brown ; primaries with transverse series of square spots of pale brown on outer webs (growing deeper brown on inner quills), the last terminal (there are about eight spots on longest primary) ; tail, crossed by six or seven sharply defined bands of pale brown, the last terminal ; face, grayish- white or pale brownish-gray, with concentric semi- circular bars of brown; "eyebrows" and lores, dull grayish-white with black shafts; a narrow crescent of black against front angle of eye; facial circle a mix- ture of blackish-brown and buffy-white bars, the former predominating across foreneck where the brown forms disconnected transverse spots; bill, dull I'uff-yellowish: iris, very dark brnivn or brozvnish-blaek. the pupil appearing blue by contrast; naked portion of toes, dull yellowish or yellowish-gray, the large scales, more decidedly yellow, the soles, deep yellow ; claws, dark horn color, becoming blackish terminally. Young : Head, neck, and entire under parts broadly barred with rather light brown and pale huffy and whitish, the brown and pale bars about equal in width ; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts similarly barred but the bars broader, the brown ones of a deeper shape, and each feather broadly tipped with white; wing- and tail-feathers (if developed) as in adults. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Almost always in a hollow tree, on the old chips, but sometimes in a deserted Crow's or Hawk's nest. Eggs : 2 to 4, usually 3, white, unspotted. Distribution. — Middle eastern North .America ; breeds north to Newfoundland, southern Quebec, northern Ontario, southern Keewatin, Manitoba, and Saskatche- wan ; west to eastern Montana, eastern Wyoming, and eastern Colorado; south to Virginia, western North Carolina, northwestern South Carolina, northern Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, southern Illinois, Mis- souri, and northern Arkansas, and occasionally to Louisiana. The Barred Owl is a bird of the deep soli- tudes. Where in the low grounds along the rivers or on lake-shores nature has built her densest growth of forest trees, or where, in for- bidding swam])s, trees and vines struggle for the mastery in one interminable jumble, there you will find the Barred Owl and his mate. If it be in the spring von mav hear his big voice booming I04 BIRDS OF AMERICA through the solitudes. For when niglit has fallen the big Swamp Owl must be up and doing. IVhoo, ivhoo, zvhoo, ivlio, who, to-hoo-ha! he shouts, emphasis and great stress being laid on the last two syllables as though he would ques- tion your presence, and challenge your right to invade his domain. The volume and variety of these ivho, who call notes is one of the wonders of the wilderness and when two or three males get to discussing affairs together the animation they inject into the melody is c|uite alarming to a timid person not accustomed to the sounds. Of all the Owls, these bar-breasted fellows are pre- eminently the most proficient hooters. This owl-music is usually heard mainly in the fore part of the night. Long before midnight it dies down, only to spring up again before sunrise. During the day they seldom call except in rainy or cloudy weather. On moonlight nights their serenade is at times continuous. They seem tu possess a certain amount of curiosity, and will often respond to a human imitation of their notes even though it be but rudely rendered. In Florida on one occasion five of these birds came close about my camp one night and from the trees overhead looked down at the fire while every one in his own language hooted and called with an energy worthy of a better subject. Barred Owls begin nesting as early as March or April. They appear never to build a nest of Drawing by R. I. Brasher BARRED OWL (i nat. size) The most proficient hooter among the Owls Photu by n. K. J. lb Courtesy of Outing Pub. Co. YOUNG BARRED OWL Mr. Job found it in a hollow tree their own and not infrequently select a deserted nest of a Crow or a Hawk. More often they seek the hollow of some tree and here well up from the ground lay their white eggs. These usually number two in Florida, although farther north four are frequently found. " The egg of a Barred Owl in the nest of a Red-shouldered Hawk has twice been found by Dr. Louis Bennet Bishop ; both times in the same piece of woodland, which had been reduced from an extensive tract by wood-choppers, thvts leav- ing few suitable nesting-places for large birds. One contained three eggs of the Hawk and one of the Barred Owl, with the Owl on the nest ; the other contained two eggs of the Hawk and one of the Barred Owl, with the Red-shouldered Hawk on the nest. As the Hawk's eggs were in both instances further advanced in incubation this species was probably the original owner of OWLS 105 both nests." (Reported in Birds of Connecti- cut.) The food consists of such animal matter as they find it most easy to obtain. Dr. A. K. Fisher, who has studied much about the food of Owls, states that of a larjje number of stomachs examined fully 50 per cent, of those that had recently received food contained mice. These birds also eat frogs, lizards, crawfish, spiders, and various insects. Now and then one catches a domestic fowl that has had the temerity to leave the shelter of the hcn-housc and go to roost in some tree. Small birds are also taken at times. This is i)robably the reason why all wild birds have such a dislike for an Owl, and one of the many intcrestins^ sights of the wood- land is to watch a band of Blue Jays leading a mob of feathered friends in an attack on a sleepy sun-dazed, and altogether discomfited Barred Owl. T. (in.nKKT Pe.\kson. The Florida, or .Mien's. Barred Owl (Strix varia aUcni) is limited to the coast strip of the South Atlantic and Gulf States from South Carolina to Florida and Texas. Its coloration is similar to the type species but its toes are wholly naked except a strip on the outer side of the middle toe. The Texas Barred Owl {Strix varia albogiha) is very much more limited in its geographical distribution than the Florida ; it is found only in the mesquite area of middle southern Texas. Like the Florida it has the toes without feathers, but its general color is much paler — the ui)])cr parts more conspicuously barred, the bars nearly pure white; the tail-bands, broader, whiter, and more sharply defined ; stripes on under parts narrower and a lighter brown and the buff, decidedly paler ; legs much paler butTy or buffy- white and much less distinctly mottled, some- times immaculate; the bill and feet are much larger. The .Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis occi- dcntalis) and its variant the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) are the western representatives of the Barred Owl — the Spotted Owl is often called the Western Barred Owl. They are smaller than the eastern Owl and have the bars of the upper parts and the stripes of the under parts replaced with spots. The colors of the Spotted Owl are much the same as those of the Barred Owl ; but the Northern Spotted Owl is decidedly darker, the brown being darker in shade and more extended in area, and the amount of white being correspondingly reduced. The Spotted Owl occurs in the mountains of southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Colorado south to northern Lower California and northwestern Mexico. The Northern Spotted Owl is found in the Pacific coast district of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California. GREAT GRAY OWL Scotiaptex nebulosa nebulosa (/. R. Forstcr) A. O. U. Number 370 See Color Plate 54 Other Name. — Spectral Owl. General Description. — Length, 30 inches ; spread ot wings, 60 inches. Phimage, grayish-brown, darker and waved above, lighter and streaked below. Color. — .Adults: General color of upper parts, dusky grayish-brown or sooty, broken by transverse mottlings (mostly on edges of feathers) of grayish- white, the uniformly sooty centers of the feathers producing an effect of irregular dusky stripes, most conspicuous on back and shoulders; the front parts with edges of feathers more regularly barred, the mottling more profuse on rump and upper tail-coverts, producing a more grayish appearance; outer webs of wing-coverts variegated by whitish mottlings ; primary coverts with very indistinct bands of paler brown ; secondaries crossed by about nine bands (one terminal, three concealed by greater coverts) of pale grayish- brown, fading into paler (sometimes whitish) on edges of outer webs; primaries crossed by nine transverse series of square spots of mottled pale brownish-gray, on outer webs, those nearer the tips indistinct, except the terminal crescentic bar; inner secondaries and middle tail-feathers with coarse mottling or marbling of dusky-brown or sooty and grayish-white, the mark- ings usually with a tendency to form irregular, broken bars ; rest of tail, dusky crossed by about nine paler bands, these merely marked off by a narrow line or edging of whitish or pale brownish-gray inclosing a grayish-brown, sometimes slightly mottled, space, though toward base of the tail-feathers the mottling is more confused and the bands confused or broken up ; ground color of under parts, grayish-white, each feather of neck, chest, breast, and abdomen with a broad, irregularly saw-toothed center stripe of dusky- brown or sooty ; sides, flanks, anal region, and under tail-coverts, narrowly banded or barred with sooty- I06 BIRDS OF AMERICA brown and grayish-white, the legs with narrower, more irregular bars ; " eyebrows," lores and chin, grayish- white, with a dusky space immediately in front of eye; face, grayish-white with distinct concentric semicir- cular bars of dusky-brown ; facial circle, dark brown passing into white on foreneck, where interrupted by a spot of brownish-black on throat; bill, light dull yclloia; iris, Icinon-yctlow. Downv Young: Buffy-white, the down on the hindneck, back, shoulders, and wings, dark sooty-brown basally, the tips pale dull buff or pale brownish-buffy. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In conifers, usually at a good height; constructed of sticks, twigs, and moss and warmly lined with feathers. Eggs : 2 to 4, white and small for size of the bird. Distribution. — Northern North America ; breeding from tree limit in Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie southward to northern British Columbia, central Alberta, northwestern Idaho, northern Manitoba, and northern Ontario ; in winter migrating southward to Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, northern Illinois, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Oregon, and northern California. The Great Gray Owl has received from the scientists a name with a very appropriate and poetical interpretation ; scotiaptex is from two Greek words which mean " the Eagle-Owl of darkness " ; nehulosa is Latin and means " cloudy " or " gray." This big and powerful Owl is forced to do much of its hunting in daylight for the very good reason that in a large area of its natural range there is no true night. Occasionally it strays into the United States. Elon H. Eaton states that " in the Adirondacks [N. Y.] it is probably more common as a winter visitor than is sup- posed, but throughout the remainder of the State is only of rare and irregular occurrence." Its decided preference, however, is evidently for the thick forest of the northland, " in which," Dr. Fisher says, " it dwells doubtless to the very limit of the trees." According to Dr. William Healey Dall it is a stupid bird and may sometimes be caught in the hands. Its diet consists chiefly of small mam- mals (hares, meadow mice, and squirrels) and Ptarmigan and smaller birds. Its cry resembles that of the Screech Owl. The Great Gray Owl exceeds the Great Horned Owl in measurements, but its weight is seldom more than that of the Barred Owl. Its plumage is unusually thick and fluffy and makes the bird appear a great deal heavier than it really is. The Lapp Owl {Scotiaptex iicbiilosa lap- ponica) is an Old World variant of the Great Gray Owl which occasionally strays into Alaska. It is lighter colored than the Great Gray. It is considered very rare even within its natural range in the upper portions of forest belt of the Arctic regions of Europe and Asia. RICHARDSON'S OWL Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni (Bonaparte) A. O. U. Number 371 See Color Plate 55 Other Names. — American Sparrow Owl ; Sparrow Owl ; Arctic Saw-whet Owl. General Description. — Length, 11 inches; spread of wings, 24 inches. Color above, brown, spotted with white; below, white, spotted with dark. Color. — Adults: General color of upper parts, deep brown ; crown, thickly spotted with white, the spots of roundish form ; hindneck with very large, partly con- cealed, irregularly heart-shaped or variously formed spots of white; shoulders with large, partly concealed spots of white, the exterior ones with outer webs mostly white, margined terminally with brown ; wing- coverts near edge of wing and some of the greater coverts with large roundish spots of white; rear half of secondaries crossed by two rows of small white spots (on edge of outer web) ; outer webs of primaries with roundish white spots, these growin.g smaller on innermost quills ; tail crossed by four or five transverse rows of white spots, these not touching shaft on either web; face, including "eyebrows," grayish-white, the portion immediately above upper eyelid and in front of eye, dark sooty-brown or blackish, the sides of head intermixed with dusky ; area above and behind ears uniform dark brown, the latter dotted on rear portion with white; sides of neck, mostly white, some of the feathers tipped with brown ; chin, cheeks, and space below ears, immaculate white; across middle of throat, a broken band of mixed brown and white, the former predominating; ground color of under parts, white, slightly tinged, in places, with pale bufif, the breast OWLS 107 (except in center) xi'ith large spols of broivn. the sides and flanks, broadly striped v.'ilh the same, the under tail-eorerts tcilh narrower stripes; lens. buff, usually clouded zvith broivn; under wing-coverts, huffy white, spotted or streaked with hrown ; under surface of wings, grayish-brown spotted with white, the spots larger and more roundish on secondaries and inner primaries, narrower and oblique on longer and outer- most primaries ; bill, horn color ; iris, lemon-yellow. Voung: Wing- and tail-feathers (only) as in adults; rest of upper parts plain deep sooty-brown, the ear- region and part of the region back of the eye, uniform sooty-black; "eyebrows," lores, and corners of the mouth, dull white, the feathers with black shafts; under parts, plain vandyke-brown. intermixed on rear portions with dull huffy. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In hollow trees, or among branches uf trees, or in bushes. Kgcs : 2 to 7, white, uiisliollfd. Distribution. — Xorthern North America; breeding from the limit of tree growth in Alaska. Yukon, and Mackenzie south to northern British Columbia, northern Alberta, northern Manitoba. Nova Scotia, and Magdalen Islands; south in winter (regularly or casu- ally) to Massachusetts, Rhode Island. Pennsylvania, southern Ontario, northern Illinois. Wisconsin, Min- nesota. Colorado, northwestern Idaho, southern British Columbia, Washington, and eastern Oregon. Richardson's Owl is not only nocturnal in its liabits, bnt apparently is made almost completely blind by the sunlij^ht, for, according to Dr. Fisher, " many S])ecimcns have been captured alive by persons walking \\\> and taking them in their hands. On this account the Eskimos in Alaska have given it the name of ' the blind OIK-.' " Ur. Merriam describes the call of this Owl as a " low liquid note that resembles the sound pro- duced by water dropping from a height ; " hence the Montagnais Indians call it pliiUip-pilc-lshch, which means " water-drip]jing owl." This fame, indeed, has more than mere physical significance for the Indians who use it. Their legend is that once upon a time the largest Owl in the world, who was very proud of his great voice, tried to imitate the voice of the waterfall and to drown out its roar. But the impertinence of this am- bition so angered the Great .S]>irit that he humili- ated the huge bird by transforming him to a pygmy and changing his voice to the feeble notes which resemble the slow dripping of water. CJKOKiiE Gladden. SAW-WHET OWL Cryptoglaux acadica acadica (dnclin) A. O. U. Number 372 See Color Plate 55 Other Names. — Acadian Owl: White-fronted Owl; Kirtland's Owl; Sparrow Owl. General Description. — Length, 8 inches; spread of wings. 18 inches. Color above, brown, spotted with white; below, white, spotted with dark. Color. — .Adults: General color of upper parts, nearly Vandyke brown; the crown, narrowly streaked with white, the streaks sometimes restricted to fore- head and sides of crown ; lower hindneck with large, mostly triangular, concealed spots of white; shoulders with outer webs mostly white, margined terminally with brown ; outer larger wing-coverts with a few spots of white; outer webs of outer primaries, spotted along edge with white ; tail, crossed by two or three inter- rupted narrow bands of white and margined at tip with the same, the transverse spots forming the bands not touching shaft on either web; lores, space above and around eye. and chin, dull white, the eye margined above and in front with dusky, this in front of eye sometimes spreading over greater portion of lores; sides of head, dull huffy white to cinnamon-huff, broadly streaked with brown ; across middle of throat and thence, on each side, to the ear ruff, a band of brown or chestnut-brown spots or streaks, this some- times advancing in front middle portion, forming a patch on upper throat; ear-ruff, streaked with brown and white, the former predominating: rest of under parts, white tinged or suffused with pale buff, broadly striped or longitudinally spotted with chestnut-brown ; under tail-coverts, immaculate white or, more rarely, with small and indistinct spots or streaks of pale brown ; legs, pale buff to cinnamon-buff, the toes, paler (dull white or huffy white) ; under wing-coverts, huffy white to light cinnamon-buff, becoming white along edge of wing ; under primary coverts white, broadly and abruptly tipped with grayish brown ; under surface of wings, grayish-brown, the inner webs of secondaries and primaries with large spots of white, the outer primaries sometimes with a few small, narrow, oblique white spots, sometimes immaculate; bill, black; iris, lemon-yellow : naked portion of toes, pale dull yellowish. Young: Wing- and tail-feathers (only) as in adults; "eyebrows" and forward portion of forehead, white, in strong contrast with the uniformly blackish-brown or (more rarely) lighter brown of ear region; rest of crown, together with upi)er parts (except win.g- and tail-feathers), plain, deep brown; chin and sides of throat, dull white ; throat, chest, and breast. |>lain io8 BIRDS OF AMERICA brown (lighter than upper parts) ; rest of under parts, plain tawny-buff or cinnamon-buff. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In a hollow tree or stump, or in deserted Woodpecker and squirrel holes. Eccs : 3 to 6, white. Distribution. — Northern North America ; breeding from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward through Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Alberta to British Columbia, and extreme southern Alaska, south- ward to Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, mountains of Maryland, northern Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, central Arizona, higher Sierra Nevada of California, and Oregon ; in winter migrating irregularly (according to severity of the season) southward to Virginia, southern Ohio, southern California, etc., casually to North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana ; casual or accidental in Mexico and Guatemala. If sound sleeping be a sign of a clear con- science, the Saw-whet Owl must have very few sins on its mind, for so deep is its slumber, huddled up in a spruce thicket or some other dense foliage, that frequently even clumsy man captures it alive. A more tragic result is the capture of the sleeper by its arch-enemy, the Barred Owl, or by some other carnivorous prowler on noiseless wing or padded foot. Doubt- less the number of these captures would become large enou.gh in time to make the bird rare in- deed, but for the fact that it often selects as a bed- SAW-WHET OWL Photographed in a wood-house on the Orange Mountains, New Jersey I i'i;ius\ Ml .^. .\. Lottridge EGGS OF THE SAW-WHET OWL chamber an old Woodpecker's nest, or a hollow tree, where it is comparatively safe from most of its enemies during the daylight hours ; at night its senses are so alert that it can generally elude them. The Saw-whet is a non-migratory species, but is a good deal of a wanderer nevertheless, with the result that a locality Vvfhich has known it well one year may see nothing whatever of it for several years thereafter. These wanderings are chiefly in search of food and occur especially during the fall and winter months. The bird's flight is singularly like that of the \\'oodcock ; so mtich like it, in fact, that Dr. Fisher, who made a special and very careful study of Ameri- can Owls, once shot a flying Saw-whet suppos- ing it to be a Woodcock, and did not discover his mistake until his dog pointed the dead bird. This Owl's cry, tnost frequently heard during March and April, has a peculiar scraping or rasping quality which suggests the sound made by filing a large-toothed saw ; and hence its popular name. A grayer variety of this owl, found on Queen Charlotte Island and in British Columbia south to the Puget Sound region, has been named the Northwestern Saw-whet Owl (Cryptoglaux acadica scotcca). Courtesy of the New York State Museum Plate 55 HAWK OWL Huniia iiluhi capaiucit (Miilltji-) SAW-WHET OWL Cri/pto(jlaux ucudica acadicfl (Gindin) All l^ nat. size RICHARDSON'S OWL Criivloglau.v funtrcii richardsoiil (Bonaparte) OWLS 109 SCREECH OWL Otus asio asio {Linmcns) A. O. v. NumhcT J7J See Color Plate 56 Other Names. — Little Horned Owl ; Gray Owl ; Red Owl: Little Dukolot ; Mottled Owl; Shivering Owl. General Description. — LciiKth, 10 inches; spread of wings. 22 inches. Dichromatic; in gray phase, hrown- ish-gray dappled ; in red phase, pattern the same hnt color chestnut-red. Ear-tufts, large and conspicuous; four or five outer primaries notched or cut away on inner wehs ; toes scantily feathered toward their tips. Color.^ Gr.w Ph.\.se — Anoi.Ts: Above, brown- ish-gray finely mottled and streaked with black or dusky, each feather with an irregidar center streak. or chain of small spots connected along shaft, of the same; inner webs of ear tufts coarsely mottled with grayish-white, brownish-white, or pale huffy; shoidders, mostly didl white to light buff, tipped and narrowly margined with blackish ; across upper nape an indica- tion of a lighter colored band, in the form of irregular grayish-white or huffy spots, and across lower hindneck often another of huffy (mostly concealed) spots; secondaries, crossed by several narrow hands of paler bufTy-grayish or pale dull huffy, each enclosing an irregular dusky bar or transverse spot of dusky, the general color, however, so broken by mottlings that the bands are sometimes indistinct; outer webs of outermost middle and greater coverts, with a large spot of white or pale bufTy on or near the tip ; outer webs of inner primaries, with square spots of lighter cinnamon, these becoming larger and paler on the three or four longest primaries ; tail, crossed by seven or eight irregular, broken, narrow bands of lighter grayish- brown ; face, dull grayish-white, witli an area of deep, mottled or streaked, brown immediately above eye ; "eyebrows," sides of head, and below eyes, narrowly barred with dusky, the feathers of lores with con- spicuously black shafts and bristly tips ; facial rim. mostly black, especially from behind ears to sides of throat; chin dull white; throat, dull white suffused with pale cimiamon-buff, narrowly barred and streaked with black; a small area of immaculate dull white in center of foreneck; center line of abdomen, together with anal region, immaculate buffy white; rest of under parts, white (sometimes faintly tinged with pale buff), broken by a rather dense narrow irregular barring of black and broad center streaks of the same, these connected or confluent with the bars, and on sides of breast eidarged into conspicuous spots, which are often edged with light rusty ; frequently, on sides and flanks, pairs of the black bars enclose a space of pale brown; legs light cinnamon-buff, fading into dull whitish on lower and rear portions of tarsi, the thighs nearly immaculate but leg-plumes heavily barred with dark brown, at least on upper portion ; longer under tail- coverts with rear portion barred or spotted with black and light brown; bill, pale dull greenish-blue; iris, bright lemon-yellow, the eyelids jet-black; toes and basal portion of claws, yellowish-gray, the terminal portion of claws, dusky. Young: Wings and tail as in adults ; upper parts, deep grayish-brown indistinctly and rather broadly barred with dusky, many of the feathers tipped with dull white; under parts, dull white broadly barred with grayish dusky ; no streaks on upper or under parts. Kufescknt Pii.\se — Adults; General pattern of coloration much as in the gray phase, but the gray or brown everywhere replaced by bright chestnut- rufous, the upper parts without the blackish; streaks narrower and linear; face, plain light cinnamon-rufous, the lores and over eye. whitish ; under parts with pattern less intricate, the blackish or dusky bars of the gray phase replaced by transverse spots of cinnamon-rufous. Young: Similar to young of the gray phase, but the grayish or grayish-brown markings rufescent. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : In a deserted Woodpecker hole, in natural hollow in a tree or stump, in outbuild- ings, or in boxes placed in trees for their use. Eggs : 4 or 5, white, laid on a few sticks, bits of grass, leaves, and feathers. Distribution. — Eastern North America from Min- nesota, Ontario, and New Brunswick south to north- eastern Texas and Georgia, and west to about the looth meridian ; accidental in England. One wonders how the man who named this bird the " Screech " Owl, would feel about a real screech, and how he would describe it. For the bird's characteristic cry is a singularly mournful and plaintive little wail, with never the slightest suggestion of a screech about it. Any term which would have denoted lament, appre- hension, and incidentally a severe chill, would have been appropriate ; in fact the name, " Shiv- ering " Owl, by which the bird is coinmonly known in the South, has the advantage of being doubly significant, since the shivering note gives superstitious folk the " shivers " also. From the naturalist's point of view, the most remarkable peculiarity of this Owl is what is technically called its " dichromatism," which means its tendency to develop two very distinct plumage phases, a red and a gray. There is no satisfactory explanation of this curious idiosyn- crasy. As William Dutcher says, " a bird of one color may be mated with a bird of another color, and all of their young may be of one color, either red or gray, or the parents may be of one color and the young of mixed colors ; hence this is often called the Mottled Owl. The only other Owl that might possibly be confounded with it is the Saw-whet [Acadian], which lacks ear-tufts, is brown, and does not have black wing-shafts." One instance is reported in which a captive gray Screech Owl was fed liver exclusively, and its no BIRDS OF AMERICA plumage changed to red ; but, as this was only a single experiment, it cannot be considered con- clusive proof that the color change was due to the diet. CuurtL'sy o£ Am. Mus. NaL. Hist. SCREECH OWL In the South this bird is better known as the Shivering Owl States from South Carolina to Florida and Texas ; it is smaller and darker, with the under parts more densely or heavily penciled, in both [jhases, than the type species. The Texas, or McCally's, Screech Owl ( Oliis nsio iiiccalU) is limited to the lower Rio Grande valley, both in Texas and in Mexico ; it is larger than the Florida Screech Owl but smaller than the common Screech Owl and paler than either ; in the gray phase it is much more coarsely mottled above than in any other form of the species. The California, or Bendire's, Screech Owl ( Oliis asio bcndirci) is similar to the gray phase of the eastern Screech Owl, but the other parts are more tinged with grayish and the darker pencilings are finer and more generally distributed, nearly, if not quite, obliterating the immaculate white throat and abdominal area which are always present in the type species. There is no rufous phase in this form. Its dis- tribution is lini'tcd to southwestern Oregon and California. Another interestmg peculiarity of the bird is that apparently the male and female mate for life, or at least retain that relationship for sev- eral years. This is one of the comparatively few- instances of monogamy in the bird world. Polygamy is more common, but with the great majority'of birds the association of the male and the female is purely a temporary affair, and m many instances the male deserts the female be- fore' the young are fully able to shift for them- selves. A pair of Screech Owls may, however, continue their relationship until it is broken by the death of one or the other ; and as the species is not migratory, it may even happen that the same pair will continue to use the same nest, in winter as well as summer, until they are driven away, in which event they are quite likely to resume housekeeping in the same neighborhood. It remains to be said that the almost invariable rule of extreme cleanliness in the care of their nests or nesting places, characteristic of most American wild birds, is not generally observed by these Owls, whose habitations are often exceedingly filthy. George Gladden. Scattered over North America are eight variants of the Screech Owl. The Florida Screech Owl {Otus asio floridanits) occurs in the coast districts of the South Atlantic and Gulf Photo by H. K- Jnh Courtesy of Outing Pub. Co. YOUNG SCREECH OWL In position of defense Courtesy of the Nc-w York State Museum Plate 56 SCREECH OWL 0/ws asio ^.v-io (LinnaeuaJ Gray and red phases SHORT-EARED OWL Asio flamrn' us {Vontoppid:in) All J nat. size OWLS III The Rocky Mountain Screech Owl (Otiis asio Maxwcllicc) was named in honor of Mrs. M. A. Maxwell of Boulder, Colorado, a noted taxider- mist and hunter. It is found in the foothills and on the adjacent plains of the eastern Rocky Mountains from southeastern Montana to central Colorado. It is cons]iicuously lighter in color than any other form, with the white purer and more extended and the colored parts paler. MacFarlane's Screech Owl {Olus asio mac- farlanci) is larger and very much darker than the Rocky Mountain: in coloration it is similar to the California hut is also larger than that form. It occurs from the interior of I'ritisli Columhia New Mexico and northeastern Arizona, and east to central Texas. The Mexican, or .Arizona, Screech Owl {Ottis asio cincraceus) is similar to the Aiken's Screech Owl, but it is more delicately i)enciled both above and below, the pencilings on the under ])arts averaging denser and more numerous : it is found in southeastern California, northern Lower California, Arizona, New Mexico, and northwestern Mexico. A species closely allied to the Screech Owls is the Spotted Screech Owl {Otiis triclwpsis). It is somewhat like the Texas and Mexican Screech Owls. i)ut smaller; the coloration is much darker. Photograph by A. A. Allen SCREECH OWL Brooding her young in the hole of a dead maple south to eastern Washington. Oregon, and west- ern Montana. Kennicott's Screech Owl ( Olus asiu kcuiii- cotti) is large, like ]\IacFarlane's, but its colora- tion is much darker and browner, the general tone of the upper parts inclining to tawny-brown, with the lighter markings brownish buff or paler cinnamon, the under parts sufifused with pale cinnamon, and the legs light tawny : the .gray phase is relatively rare. This form is found in the northwest coast region from Oregon to Sitka. Aiken's Screech Owl (Otiis asio aikciii) is smaller and much darker than the Rocky Moun- tain ; it is distributed over the foothills and plains of east-central Colorado, south to central with coarser mottling on the upper ])arts ; the lower hindneck is crossed by a collar of white spots. It occurs from southern Arizona south to Guatemala. Another related species is the Flammulated Screech Owl (Ottis flainincoliis flaimncoliis) and its variant form, the Dwarf, or Idaho, Screech Owl (Otiis flainineoliis idalioensis). In these two Owls the toes are entirely naked, the ear-tufts, short (almost rudimentary), the upper parts, grayish (cinnamon-brown in red phase), finelv mottled and marked with blackish, the facial circle, bright cinnamon to deep brown. The Flammulated .Screech Owl is found in Arizona and northern Colorado south to central 112 BIRDS OF AMERICA Mexico and the highlands of Guatemala : the Dwarf Screech Owl occurs in southern British Columbia, eastern Washington, and Idaho south to San Bernardino Mountains, California. " The little Screech Owl is well known throughout the greater part of the United States. With the exception of the Burrowing Owl, it feeds more extensively on insects than any of the other Owls. It is also a diligent mouser, and feeds more or less on crawfish, frogs, toads, scorpions, lizards, and fish. Of 254 stomachs examined, birds were found in about 15 per cent. Among insects, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and cutworms are most often eaten. As many as fifty grasshoppers have been found in one stomach, eighteen May beetles in another, and thirteen cutworms in a third. During the warmer parts of the year it is exceptional to find a stomach not well filled with insect remains. Meadow mice, white-footed mice, and house mice are the mammals most often taken, while chip- munks, wood rats, flying squirrels, and moles are less frequently found. The Screech Owl is fond of fish and catches many, especially in winter, when it watches near the breathing holes on the ice, and seizes the luckless fish which comes to the surface. Most of the birds destroyed by this Owl are killed either in severe winter weather or during the breeding season, when it has hard work to feed its young. As nearly three-fourths of the Owl's food consists of injurious mammals and insects, and only about one-seventh of birds ( a large proportion of which are destructive English Sparrows), there is no question that this little Owl should be carefully protected." (Fisher.) GREAT HORNED OWL Bubo virginianus virginianus (Giiiclin) A. O. U. Number 375 See Color Plate 57 Other Names. — Big Hoot Owl ; Cat Owl ; Virginia Owl ; Virginia Horned Owl. General Description. — Length. 24 inches; spread of wings. 60 inches. Color above, sooty-brown or dusky, mottled with grayish-white ; below, whitish, barred with dark. Ear-tufts very conspicuous, about 2 inches in length ; toes fully feathered ; 3 or 4 outer primaries notched or cut away on inner webs. Color. — Adults : Plumage in general, tawny basally, this partially e.xposed on crown and hindneck, on shoulders, rump, and sides of breast, sometimes on other portions of the under parts ; general color of upper parts, dark sooty-brown or dusky, much broken by coarse transverse mottling of grayish-white, the dusky greatly predominating on crown and hindneck, where forming broad ragged or coarsely and irregular saw-toothed longitudinal stripes which become blended on forehead ; shoulders and some of the middle and greater wing-coverts with inconspicuous irregular spots or blotches of whitish; secondaries more minutely mottled (producing a more grayish effect), and crossed by about five to eight bands of mottled dusky; primary coverts, darker, crossed by three of four bands of blackish ; primaries with ground color more ochraceous or bufify, finely mottled or penciled, and crossed by six to nine transverse series of square spots of dusky; ground color of tail, light tawny, transversely mottled with dusky, more whitish terminally, and crossed by six or seven bands of mottled dusky, these about equal in width to the paler interspaces and bands broken or sometimes even quite obliterated on middle tail-feath- ers where the darker markings have an oblique or. sometimes, even longitudinal tendency: car-tufts with outer webs black, their inner webs mostly ochraceous; " eyebrows," dull whitish, the feathers with blackish shafts; face, dingy ochraceous or dull tawny, passing into dull whitish around eyes ; a crescentic mark of black bordering upper eyelid and confluent with black of ear-tufts; facial circle, black, except across throat; a conspicuous, crescentic area of immaculate white across foreneck, the feathers white to extreme base ; rest of under parts with white predominating, but tawny or ochraceous prevalent on sides of breast and show- ing as the base color wherever the feathers are dis- arranged ; sides of chest, breast, and abdomen, sides, and flanks, with numerous sharply defined transverse bars of brownish black, these narrower and less sharply defined on front, the center of upper breast immaculate white; a series of large spots or blotches of black on chest, below the white collar ; under tail-coverts with bars farther apart than on other under parts ; legs and toes, dull tawny to pale buff, usually immaculate or nearly so. more rarely flecked or spotted with dusky; bill, dull slate-black or blackish-slate; iris, briglit lemon- chrome yellow ; bare portion of toes, light brownish- gray or ashy ; claws, horn color, passing into black terminally. Young: Wings and tail as in adults; downy plumage of head, neck, and body, ochraceous or bulT, relieved by detached, rather distant, bars of black. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Generally, in a deserted Hawk's, Crow's, Eagle's. Osprey's, or Caracara's nest or (in some parts of its range) in a cave, on a ledge, or in a hollow tree ; constructed of twigs, weed stalks, roots, and feathers when in an old nest, or eggs deposited on the bare ground amidst a collection of old bones, skulls, fur, and feathers of quadrupeds and birds. Ei'.Gs: 2 or 3, white. Distribution. — Eastern North America from Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland south to the Gulf coast and Florida, west to Wisconsin, eastern Minnesota, Iowa, and eastern Texas. OWLS 113 " Tiger of the Air " is the term which has heen applied to this great Owl, and fitly, too, it must be admitted, for the big bird undeniably is cou- rageous, powerful, and bloodthirsty. That he is highly destructive must also be conceded, for it has been demonstrated beyond question ol a doubt not only that he is bold, ])ersistent, and generally successful in his raids ujjon domeslir poultry of all kinds, hut that he is highly skill- ful and deadly in his jiursuit of game birds, song birds, rabbits, and squirrels. The tiger comparison applies well to the Owl's manner of hunting, for the sweep of his great wings in the silent air is as noiseless as the tread of the big cat's padded feet upon the soft earth. Through the woods and over the meadows he glides as silently as a shadow, and to the unwatchful rabbit or the slumbering Partridge that shadow is the shadow of certain and sudden death. For such creatures the Owl's lightning-like swoop, and the murderous clutch of his great talons, are as ])itiless and as ines- capable as the spring of the tiger u])on the helpless lamb. To the poultry-farmer this Owl is a veritable terror; for, once the bird has acquired a pref- erence for a diet of domesticated fowls, and has learned that they are easier to caj)turc than are the wild creatures, nothing short of death is at all likely to deter him. For young Turkeys he is likely to develop an especially strong craving, and one instance is recorded of the loss by a farmer of fifty-nine young Guinea-fowl, taken in a single autumn by the same Owd. In such instances the bird is hkely to become fastidious to the extent that he will devour only tlie brains of his prey, and leave the flesh untouched. Of the mammals he has been known to kill even the woodchuck, and he and other members of his family are apparently the only rapacious birds who frequently dine on the skunk, with the well- known results which, however, evidently do not in the least trouble the Owl. The bird's breeding habits are peculiar. In the general latitude of Michigan the eggs are laid before the first of March, and many in- stances are recorded of their being laid as early as the first week in February, or even in the latter part of January, when the winter has been un- usually mild. It is by no means uncommon to find an Owl stolidly incubating under a thick- blanket of snow. Two eggs are the normal complement, and there is evidence that fre- quently they are laid with an interval of several days between them, for often a nest is found to contain a partly fledged bird and an unhatched egg- This peculiarity has i)rompted the dubious inference that the interval between the eggs is deliberately ])lanned, so that the later one may be protected by the fledgling when the mother is away from the nest. It is much more probable that the interval represents natural o]ierations which are imperfect, rather than designed. Courtesy of Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. GREAT HORNED OWL (J nat. size) A bold, persistent, and powerful raider " Dr. Louis Bennett Bishop and Mr. Herbert K. Job have both noted an unusual habit of the parent birds in apparently destroying the nest when the young become old enough to balance themselves in the fork of the tree, thus remov- ing the conspicuous nest and leaving the bird 114 BIRDS OF AMERICA well protected by the harmony of its colors with the bark of the tree." ( Reported in Birds of Connecticut.) The hooting cry of Owls is perhaps as famous as is the note of any bird. In fact, it is so famous that uninformed or careless listeners ap- ply the term " hoot owl " to any bird who has a 1>1. ■ ■ 1 1 I, 1 ' 'lurtesy of 0\v GREAT HORNED OWL When huJdled up on the nest attending to incubation duties its resemblance to a cat is very maiked hooting call. As a result such persons often con- fuse two or more distinct species, especially the Great Horned Owl and the Barred Owl, though there is a marked difTerence between the hoots of these two birds, that of the Great Horned being much the stronger and more characteristic. This bird also has a series of yelps, not unlike those of a dog, and a catlike squall, to which may be due one of its popular names, " Cat Owl," though the appearance of the bird's head with its con- spicuous ear-tufts is not unlike that of a cat. The " oot-too-hoo, hoo-hoo " call, with the syllables variously divided and differently ac- cented is, however, the characteristic utterance of this remarkable and interesting bird. Some- times, when heard at a distance, the audible notes, two long ones followed by two short ones, strongly suggest the warning which a locomotive engineer sounds with his whistle when he ap- proaches a crossing. Usually the cry, like that of most Owls and of the night-birds generally, has an uncanny and weird significance, in which are blended distinct suggestions of threat, de- fiance, and scorn, as befits the fearless and savage nature of this veritable " tiger of the air." George Gladden. The name of the genus to which the Great Horned Owl belongs is Bubo, which is Latin for Eagle-Owl. This genus has seven other repre- sentatives in North America. The Western, or Pallid, Horned Owl {Bubo virginianns palles- cens) is similar to the Great Horned but smaller and lighter. It is found in western North America (exclusive of the high mountains) from eastern Oregon, Montana, and Minnesota south to southeastern California, Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas, and northeastern Mexico. The Pacific, or California, Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus pacificus) is found in the interior of California, north to south-central Oregon, and east to San Francisco Mountain, western Ari- zona. It is slightly smaller than the Western Horned Owl, generally darker, the feet more heavily mottled with dusky, and the face usually with more decided tinge of tawny. The Dwarf Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus elachistus) occurs in southern Lower California ; it is similar in coloration to the Pacific Horned Owl but nuich smaller. The Dusky Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus satiiratus) is similar to the Pacific Horned Owl but much darker, especially the upper parts ; it is found from the interior of Alaska south along the coast to south-central California, and in the Rocky Mountains to Arizona and New Mexico. The Arctic Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus subarcticus or Bubo virginianus wapacuthu) is paler than the Western Horned Owl, the upper parts with much more of white and less of black, the under parts less heavily barred, and the feet paler, usually immaculate bufl or buffy white. Courtesy of the N-^ v-... "ii.i.. M.. Plate 57 GREAT HORNED OWL liuho rirfjininnua virgiiiianuft (Gmelia) I nat. size OWLS 115 It breeds from northwestern Mackenzie and central Kcewatiii to the southwestern Saskatche- wan : in winicr it travels southward to Ontario, Wisconsin, northeastern Illinois. North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, and Colorado. i'hc Labrador Horned < )\\1 ( Bubo z'irc/inianiis lieterucncniis) is similar lo llu- Dusky Horned Owl ; but its bill is lar<,Hr, ils rear under parts lighter, its feet paler and less heavily mottled, and its upjier parts usually with less of a tawny admixture. It occurs on the coast of Labrador and Unj^ava ; in winter it is fo\nid in Xewfoiuid- land. Ontario, and Toronto. The Saint Michael Horned Owl (Bubo vir- giniamis alc/istiis) is larger than the Pacific Horned Owl and with the tawny ])arts intensified in color. It is found in the coa.st region of north- ern -Alaska from Bristol Bay and the Yukon delta northward. .•\s a result of his investigations of the habits of this grou]) of Owls, Dr. A. K. l-'isher reports: " The large and handsome Great Horned Owl is found throughout the United States wdiere suitable timber exists for its habitation. It is a voracious bird, and its capacity for good or evil is very great. If the more thickly settled dis- tricts where poultry is extensively raised could be passed by, and the bird considered only as it ajipears in the great \\ est. it would earn a secure place among the beneficial species, for it is an important ally of the ranchman in fighting the hordes of ground squirrels, go])hers, prairie dogs, rabbits, and other rodents which infest his fields and ranges. Where mammals are ])lenty it does not seem to attack poultry or game birds to any considerable extent, but in regions where rabbits and squirrels are scarce, it frequently makes inroads on fowls, especially where they roost in trees. Undoubtedly rabbits are its favorite food, though in some places the common rat is killed in great numbers; we have a record of the re- mains of over one hundred rats that were found under one nest. The following is a list of the mammals taken from the stomachs examined: Three species of rabbits, cotton rat, two species of pouched gophers, two species of wood rats, chipmunk, two sjjecies of grassho]>per mice, white-footed mouse, plateau ground scpiirrel, Harris ground squirrel, musk rat, fox squirrel, five species of meadow mice, one short-tailed shrew, the house mouse, common rat, black bat, red-backed mouse, flying scpiirrel, shrew, and kangaroo rat. Besides mammals and birds, in- sects (such as grasshoppers and beetles), scor- pions, crawfish, and fish are also taken. The Great Horned Owl does a vast amount of good, and. if farmers would shut up their chickens at night instead of allowing them to roost in trees and other exposed places, the principal damage done by the bird would be prevented." SNOWY OWL Nyctea nyctea { Liniiccus) A. O, U. Number 37fi See Color Plate 54 Other Names. — Great White Owl: Ermine Owl; HartaiiK; Wapacuthu ; .'\rctic Owl. General Description. — Length, 24 inches; spread of wings. 60 inches. Color, white with dark spots. Ear- tufts almost or quite lacking; 4 or 5 outer primaries notched or cut away on inner webs near tips ; feet densely covered with hair-like feathers, hiding the black claws. Color, — Adult M.\le: Entire plumage, pure white, sometimes nearly immaculate but usually broken with transverse spots or bars of clear slaty brown on crown, back, and shoulders, the wing- and tail-feathers with subterminal spots of dusky; under parts, usually marked on abdomen, sides, and flanks with narrow bars of clear slaty brown, but these sometimes wholly absent; hill, black ; iris, lemon-yellow ; claws, black. Adult Female: Much darker than the adult male, only the face, foreneck, center of breast, and the feet being Vol. II— 9 immaculate, other portions being heavily barred with dark brownish-slate, the crown and hindneck spotted with the same; bill, etc.. as in adult male. Young: Uniform dusky brown or deep sooty-grayish, paler on legs and feet. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A slight depression on a knoll, lined with some dried grass and a few feathers. Egcs : 3 to 10. generally 5 to 7, white or pale cream. Distribution. — Northern parts of northern hemis- phere ; in North .America breeding from far within the Arctic Circle southward to northern Ungava, central Keewatin, central Mackenzie, and northern British Co- lumbia; in winter southward to more northern United States, irregularly (according to severity of the season), but sometimes numerously, to Virginia. Illinois. Kansas, Colorado, and mouth of Columbia River, casually or rarely to South Carolina, Louisiana. Te.xas, and Cali- fornia ; accidental in the Bermudas. Ii6 BIRDS OF AMERICA The fine, strong, and picturesque Snowy Owl comes to us as a migrant from the northland where it breeds, and where the long days in summer make its habits chiefly diurnal. This fact has been discovered too late by many a Crow engaged with his brethren in the pleasing diver- sion of mobbing the big white specter sitting on Drawing by R. I Brasher SNOWY OWL (8 nat. size) A clever fisherman as well as hunter a limb motionless, and presumably blind, because obviously an Owl. For, let one of the black tormentors come near enough and the ghost sud- denly launches out on strong, silent wings, the great talons strike and close, and there is a Crow who would have been wiser but for the circum- stance that he is very dead. In the regions far to the north, where this Owl breeds and therefore does its most persistent hunting, it preys upon small rodents. Ptarmigans, Ducks and other waterfowl, and, according to Captain Bendire, will kill and devour even the Arctic hare, an animal often twice as heavy as the Owl. It is very fond of fish and is said to be expert at catching them alive. It will also eat dead fish washed up on the shore, when other food is scarce. So swift is its flight that it is able to overtake even Grouse in flight. Duck hunters are often startled by the sudden descent of the great bird upon their decoys. In its migrations it is be- lieved to be more destructive to game and other useful birds than the Barred Owl, but less so than the Great Horned Owl. For unknown reasons the winter migrations of the Snowy Owl sometimes amount to veritable invasions. In New York, for example, this phe- nomenon was observed in the winters of 1876- 1877, 1882-1883, 1889-1890, and 1901-1902, when, according to Mr. Eaton, " dozens of speci- mens were collected in various parts of the State, notably on Long Island and near the shores of Lake Ontario." Of its economic value Dr. A. K. Fisher says: " On account of its size and strength the Snowy Owl is capable of doing great good in destroying noxious mammals. The stomachs examined were collected between the last of Oc- tober and March and the contents make a very good showing for the bird. Although a number of water birds were found, a large proportion consisted of mammal remains. One stomach contained fourteen white-footed mice and three meadow mice, and in others as many as five to eight of these little rodents were found. The common rat appeared in a number of stomachs and seems to be considerably sought after. It is a lamentable fact that this useful bird is slaughtered in great numbers whenever it ap- pears within our limits." George Gladden. AMERICAN HAWK OWL Surnia ulula caparoch (MiUlcr) A. O. U. Number 377a See Color Plate 55 Dav Owl ; Canadian Owl ; Hudsonian Other Names Owl. General Description. — Length, 17 inches; spread of wings, 34 inches. Color above, dark brown, speckled with white; below, white, barred with brown. No ear- tufts ; facial disk, poorly developed, making the face hawk-like ; 3 or 4 outer primaries notched on inner webs; tail, tony and routidcd : feet, heavily feathered. Color. — Adults : Plumage above, rich dark brown, darker in front, where passing into black or brownish- OWLS '17 black on hiiuliieck and crown, lighter and more grayish- brown behind, each feather of crown with a central small spot of white, those on forehead more circular, those on back of head more linear, as well as less numerous, the hindncck with larger V-shaped or wedge- shaped spots, streaks, or bars of white; a narrow streak of brownish-black from above middle of eye backward along upper edge of ears, where it bends abruptly downward across terminal portion of the latter; confluent with this at about the middle of its vertical portion is another but broader blackish stripe which passes down side of hindneck, and another passes from back of head down center line of hindneck; between these black stripes a whitish area ; back, plain brown; a conspicuous elongated patch of white immedi- ately above wing; rump with sparse, transverse, spots of white, the upper tail-coverts with broader and more regular bars of same, about equal to the brown ones in width ; outermost middle and greater wing-coverts with an ovoid spot of white on outer webs; secondaries crossed by about three series of ovoid spots of white (on edges) and very narrowly tipped with white; outermost primary coverts with one or two series of white spots; primaries with about 7 series of white spots, all the primaries margined at tips with white; tail, crossed by seven or eight very narrow bands of white (the last one terminal), these bands becoming less distinct (sometimes obsolete) on lateral feathers; "eye- brow," lores, and face, grayish-white, the grayish appearance caused by black shafts to the feathers, the grayish-white of face continued across lower part of throat, separating a large space of dark brown from an indistinct brown collar across upper chest, this collar confluent with the lower end of the black bands on the head; ground color of under parts, white, everywhere barred with chestnut-brown or burnt-umber, the bars sharply defined, averaging rather more than half as wide as the white interspaces, except on upper chest, where the white is so much in excess as to form a broken patch, below which the brown bars are broader, and somewhat coalesced ; on legs and toes the bars narrower, more sparse, and less regular; bill, yellowish; iris, lemon-yellow. YoL'Nc;: Upper parts, dark sooty- brown or sepia, the feathers of crown and hindneck tipped with dull grayish-butT, which forms the predomi- nating color; feathers of shoulders and of the space between indistinctly tipiied with dull grayish-buff; lores and sides of head, plain brovvnisli-hlack, the rest of face, dull whitish; under i)arts, dull whitish, deeply shaded across chest with dark sooty brownish, the other portions being broadly but rather indistinctly barred with brown, these markings narrower and more con- fused toward the front and on the legs. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In an abandoned Wood- pecker hole, natural cavities, sometimes on rocks or stumps, or in old nests of other birds, relined with feathers and moss. Eccs : 3 to 7, white. Distribution. — Northern North America ; breeding northward to limit of trees in Alaska, Yukon, Mac- kenzie, Keewatin, and Ungava, southward to Labrador; Newfoundland ( ?), central Alberta, Montana (casually?), and southern British Columbia; winters, regularly, southward as far as Massachusetts, Rhode Island, eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, southern Ontario, Ohio, southeastern Indiana, Michigan, southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, and Washington; accidental in Bermuda (?) and in British Isles. Like thf .Snowy Owl, the Hawk Owl is a winter visitor to otir Northern States from the Arctic regions, where, also like his big white cousin, he has learned to hunt effectively in broad daylight. He is likely to be seen in the latitude of the northern third of Michigan from about the last week of October until about the first of February, when he begins to move toward his northward range, several weeks ahead of the Snowy Owl. The Hawk Owl is of much less frequent oc- currence in its southern range than is the Snowy, but like the latter species it sometimes, and for no apparent reason, appears in tinusual numbers. One of these visitations, for example, occurred in northern New England in October and No- vember, 1884, when scores, if not hundreds, of these Owls were shot. The bird is ap])ropriately named " Hawk " Owl; not only is its appearance Hawk-like but its manner of hunting is similar, in some respects, to that of the Hawks, or at any rate very unlike that of most of the Owls. For, besides its day- light hunting, the bird has the habit of perching conspicuously on a dead stub, or in plain sight at the top of a tree, wheiice it watches for its prey with true Hawk-like alertness. When frightened from such a perch, it usually swoo])s downward to about the level of the undergrowth and then flies rapidly to another good observa- tion point, which it reaches by an abrupt upward glide. Its flight, however, is entirely Owl-like in its noiselessness. Its common note, a slirill cry, is uttered usually when the bird is thus in flight. Its prey includes chiefly mice, squirrels, and birds, hawked for in broad daylight. The American Hawk Owl, as its name implies, is the American representative of the European Hawk Owl {Siirnia iihila iiliila). The latter is found in the northern parts of the Old \\'orld but casually it strays over to Alaska. It is much lighter than the American species, the black and brown areas being lighter and less extended and the white ones more extended. In habits, how- ever, the two are alike. ii8 BIRDS OF AMERICA BURROWING OWL Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea {Bonaparte) A. O. U. Other Names. — Billy Owl ; Ground Owl. General Description. — Length, gyi inches. Color above, brown spotted with light ; below, whitish, barred with brown. Tail, square or slightly rounded, only about half as long as wing; head, relatively small; legs, long; 3 outer primaries with inner webs cut away. Color. — Adults: Above, brown with pale brownish- buff to dull buffy-white spots, these largest on back, shoulders, and wing-coverts, where often roundish, and on hindneck, where mostly longitudinal, smaller on crown, where often intermixed with streaks of the same color; secondaries with the spots arranged in 4 or 5 transverse series, the outer webs of primaries with similar spots, which become larger on longer quills ; tail, crossed by S or 6 narrow, interrupted bands of pale dull buffy, usually suffused with deeper buff and narrowly tipped with pale buff; a stripe over eye 0} dull broii'iiisli-'ichite, the lores and around eye the same color but usually stained with pale brown, the former with shafts of the feathers, black; side of head, brown, indistinctly streaked with paler; chin, cheeks, and lower side of head, immaculate dull white or buffy white, this white area extending upward at rear end behind lower half, or more, of ear region ; throat, buff, barred with dark brown, the bars usually most developed (sometimes coalesced) behind, forming a transverse band, which on each side is continued upward behind the whitish area; foreneck and upper center of chest, immaculate buffy white; rest of under parts, pale buff, deeper buff and immaculate on thigh plumes and thighs Number 378 (the feathering of leg, the anal region, center of lower ab- domen, and the under tail-coverts likewise immaculate), elsewhere broadly barred with brown, the brown pre- dominating on chest or upper breast (especially later- ally), where the buff is often in form of small, roundish, or sometimes even longitudinal spots ; bill, dull light grayish or yellowish; iris, clear lemon-yellow; toes and naked part of leg, dull grayish or horn color. Young: Wings and tail (if developed) as in adults; crown, hindneck, and back, mostly plain light grayish-brown to buffy brown ; under parts and upper tail-coverts immacu- late buff, the sides of chest (sometimes whole of upper chest), shaded with brown ; throat band, uniform brown. Nest and Eggs. — Eggs: Deposited from 5 to 10 feet from entrance of abandoned prairie-dog. skunk, fox, or badger burrow, in an enlarged chamber, upon a collection of weed stalks, dried broken bits of horse or cow-dung, bits of skin, or any convenient material; 5 to u, usually 5 to 7, white. Distribution. — Unforested portions of western United States and southwestern Canada, from Pacific coast to western Minnesota, South Dakota. Nebraska, middle Kansas, Texas, and southeastern Louisiana; north to Washington (casual), southern British Colum- bia, southwestern Saskatchewan (breeding), and western Manitoba ; southward through Lower Cali- fornia to Cape San Lucas and through Mexico to Guatemala ; reappearing in western Panama ; accidental in New York City and Newburyport. Massachusetts (escaped from captivity?). (.ourtcby u( S A Lottridge FLORIDA BURROWING OWL Contrary to the usual Owl custom the Burrow- ing Owl is diurnal in its liabits, and evidently can see in the bright noonday glare quite as well as any of our familiar song birds. It is very active and exceedingly odd in many of its move- ments. Frequently on the western plains or deserts I have come across one of them stand- ing at the mouth of its bttrrow or perched on a sagebush or fence-stake and have been greeted with a series of bows so profound and deferential as to be most disconcerting. The nest is always made in a hole in the ground. A fox den, a badger burrow, or a prairie-dog hole, deserted by the original owners, make a suitable abode for the Burrowing Owl. Where these are not convenient and the soil is not too hard for its efforts, the Owl digs its own burrow. Sometimes one may come across a solitary pair far from any others of their kind, and again several pairs will be found inhabiting the same locality. Five to seven eggs are laid. These are pure white, as if Nature did not feel called upon to distribtite her coloring matter on eggs that birds insist on hiding in the blackness of an underground chamber. These Owls appear to eat almost anything they can lay their claws on. Ground squirrels, snakes, OWLS 119 lizards, and grasshoppers all fall hcncatli their attacks. They are known to catch birds — even such large species as the Nigiithawk succumb to their ferocity. On the palmetto prairies of the south Florida mainland, as well as on some of the islands along the coast, is found the Florida Burrowing Owl (Sf'cotyto cunicularhi floritlaiia ) which is very closely related to the western bird of the same name. In The Auk for January, 1892, S. N. Rhoads tells of his experience of visiting a nest- ing colony that was three miles long and con- tained several hundred j^airs of " Ground Owls," as they are locally called. Here in the loose sand it was easy for the birds to make their own nesting burrows. These ran along so close under the grass roots that grazing cattle often broke holes through from the top. The burrows were from four to seven feet in length with an en- larged oven-shaped ])0cket at the end. The nesting material consisted of pieces of dry cow-droppings and fragments of turf among which the eggs were mixed more or less indis- criminately. The old birds it seemed were kept very busy gathering food for their offspring. Of the appetite of the young he writes: "The voracity of the young is ])henomenal. I kept several, of different ages, in a tin box for several days. Besides eating everything, fresh or putrid, that was offered, they attacked and devoured each other. I was forced to kill the three re- maining cannibals to preserve them." T. GiLiiERT Pearson. PYGMY OWL Glaucidium gnoma gnoma IVaglcr A. O. U. Number 379 Other Name. — Gnome Owl. General Description. — Length, 6^ inches. Dichro- matic ; in grayisli-brown phase, upper parts grayish- brown spotted with light and under parts white streaked with dark; in rufescent phase, upper parts much browner with the spots cinnamon. No ear-tufts; tips of outer primaries narrow. Color. — Gr-wisii-brown Phase: General color of upper parts, grayish brown, the crown and hindneck with numerous irregular but mostly roundish small spots of pale dull buff; across lower hindneck an inter- rupted collar of white and immediately below this an- other of black followed by large, mostly concealed, spots of pale tawny ; back, shoulders, wing-coverts, rump, and upper tail-coverts with minute irregular (often V-shaped) spots or bars of pale huffy brownish, buflFy, or whitish, these markings mostly concealed ; outer shoulder-feathers with large spots of huffy or huffy-white on both webs, the spots largest, however, on outer webs ; outermost middle and greater wing- coverts with larger spots of white; primary coverts, plain dark brown, darker terminally, their inner webs, however, spotted with white ; wings, dusky grayish brown, their outer webs with transverse spots or broad bars of paler grayish-brown, these becoming white or partly white on outer secondaries and ends of longer primaries ; tail, dark to dusky grayish-brown, crossed by 6 or 7 interrupted bars of white, these much broader on inner webs, and on both webs falling far short of the shaft; "eyebrows" and lores, dull white, the latter with conspicuous black bristly shafts; chin and cheeks, immaculate white; a band of brown across throat; foreneck and middle line of breast and abdomen, immaculate white; sides of chest, brown tinged with tawny, transversely spotted with pale cinnamon-buflF, the sides more grayish, irregularly spotted with white; rest of under parts, white broadly streaked with dark brown, the streaks becoming black or brownish black on fianks and next to the immaculate white center area; legs, soiled dull white mottled with grayish-brown; bill, pale grayish-yellow, darker basally ; iris, lemon yellow; toes, light yellowish-brown. Rufescent Ph.\se: Similar in pattern of coloration to the grayish-brown phase, but general color of upper parts much browner with the spotting (especially that on crown and hind- neck) cinnamon or cinnamon-bufF. and with throat- band and sides of breast cinnamon-brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In hollow stumps, or trees from 8 to 75 feet from the ground, usually in deserted Woodpecker holes, generally in coniferous forests, but the nest in deciduous trees. Eggs : 3 or 4, white or very pale cream. Distribution. — Western North America from Caribou district, interior of British Columbia, south in moun- tains to Guatemala and cast to eastern Montana, Colo- rado, and New Mexico. Dr. Coues gave the Pygmy Owl an excellent character, saying that " it is a very straight- forward, ingenuous, unsuspicious little bird, meddling with no affairs but its own, and inno- cent enough to expect like treatment from others, expectations, however, not often realized " — either in birdland or elsewhere, he might have added. I20 BIRDS OF AMERICA A physical peculiarity wherein the bird is strangely un-Owl-like is that when it is in flight its wings make a distinct whistling sound, whereas the flight of the remainder of its tribe in this country is as silent as the passing of a shadow. Moreover, like a few other members of its family, it is quite able to do, and does, much of its hunting in broad daylight, even in the bright sunshine, though probably it is most active in the dim light of the evening and early morn- ing. Dr. Fisher corroborates Dr. Coues' state- ment about the unsuspicious nature of the bird by noting that it responds promptly to an imita- tion of its call (which resembles the syllables klook, klook), and in this way may be decoyed from a considerable distance ; and he adds that " it hides in the pines or other thick foliage, where it sits upright near the trunk and is prac- tically invisible to the observer." Besides not being noiseless this Owl's flight is rather jerky and uneven, suggesting that of the Sparrow Hawk, this being true especially when the bird is hunting insects, which it often catches by pouncing upon them on the ground from low- branches or stumps. These dives are executed after the manner of the Shrike, that is, with closed wings, followed by a fluttering upward flight. It is a very courageous bird, and kills and eats other birds as large as the Robin and squirrels or other rodents twice its own size. The Indians are very superstitious about this bird, and believe that killing one will bring ter- rible misfortunes upon the slayer. The California Pygmy Owl {Glaucidiuni glioma californicum) is a browner variety of the Pygmy and is limited to the Pacific coast region from southwestern British Columbia south to Monterey, California. Speaking of this subspe- cies, Mr.' \V. L. Finley says (MS.) : " We have had one or two cases in which the California Pygmy Owl has killed canaries in cages. One of our wardens killed one of these birds as it was eating a Meadowlark which it had caught ; it had evidently caught the bird in broad daylight." ELF OWL Micropallas virhitneyi (/. G. Cooper) A. O. U. Number 381 Other Name. — Whitney's Owl. General Description. — Length, 6 inches. Dichro- matic ; in gray phase, upper parts brownish-gray spotted with yellowish and under parts a mixture of white, gray, and light brown ; in brown phase, upper parts nearly snufT-brown. No ear-tufts; tail, square or slightly rounded, less than half as long as wing; tarsus, scantily haired or bristled, not feathered ; 4 outer primaries notched on inner webs. Color. — Gray Phase — Adults: Above, brownish- gray to grayish-brown, the crown, hindneck, back, shoulders, rump, upper tail-coverts, and lesser wing- coverts with small irregular spots of buff or pale tawny, these larger and deeper pale tawny or cinnamon-bufT on forehead; an interrupted narrow collar of white across lower hindneck; outer webs of feathers on shoulders, mostly white, margined terminally with black- ish ; middle and greater wing-coverts with a large, semi- ovoid spot of white on terminal or subterminal portion of outer web ; secondaries crossed by about five series of semi-circular spots of pale cinnamon-buff, these pass- ing into white on outer edge ; primary coverts with three series of dull cinnamon-bufF spots; outer webs of primaries with about 6 conspicuous spots of cinna- mon-buff, these not touching shafts; tail crossed by about 4 or 5 narrow, interrupted bands of pale brownish buffy or bufFy and white, these not reaching shaft on either web ; " eyebrows," white, the feathers narrowly tipped with black; "face," cinnamon to cinnamon-bufF, the last sometimes partly dull rusty whitish; a white cheek spot, margined behind by a blackish bar; throat cinnamon to cinnamon-buff, this extended laterally to behind the black cheek bar, where sometimes barred with blackish; rest of under parts, a confused mixture of white, grayish, and dull light cinnamon or light buffy brown, the white predominating behind, the grayish and cinnamon prevailing forward, the colored areas narrowly and irregularly barred with dusky; under tail-coverts, white, with subterminal irregular spots of pale buffy brown or narrow center streaks of dusky; under wing-coverts, white, suffused with pale buffy brown and irregularly spotted with deep grayish brown, the edge of wing, however, immaculate white; bill, pale horn color witli yellowish edges ; iris, lemon yellow. Young: Similar to adults but crown nearly immaculate deep brownish-gray, and without any cinnamon-bufF on face or throat, or bufFy brown on under parts, the latter irregularly marbled or clouded with white and light brownish-gray narrowly barred with darker. Brown Phase: Much browner than the grayish (usual) phase, the general color of the upper parts nearly snufF-brown ; otherwise not different, the pattern of the coloration being identical. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In the giant cactus, an abandoned Woodpecker's hole being almost always utilized, but sometimes in a hollow tree. Eggs : 2 to 5, pure white. Distribution. — Southern and Lower California, east to southern Te.xas, south over the tableland of Mexico to Puebla. OWLS 121 Arizona is a land of extremes. We may ex- pect to find gray and brown birds to match the colors of the desert ; we also find birds of most brilliant hue. There are also extreme.-^ in size. Here in the desert lives the dwarf of all Owls. When we made his acciiiainlance, we found he was no bigger than an English Sparrow. What a tiny baby in com])arison to the Great Horned Owl ! When the lalu Mr. liiTbcrt Brown, who was a splendid naturalist and outdoor man. asked us to go Owl hunting, we accepted. The next morn- ing, he came early with a team and light wagon. In the back of the wagon, he had three short ladders, which I discovered later had been built especially so they fitted together and made a ladder long enough to reach up near the toj) of the tallest cactus. No matter how ex])crt one is at climbing, he would have some difficulty without a ladder in getting up where the Elf Owls nest, for they prefer the highest W'ood- pecker's hole in the top of the giant cactus. In the semi-desert country around Tucson, the Woodpeckers find very few trees, not nearly enough for nesting places. As a substitute, they take the giant cactus. When they drill a cavity into the green cactus trunk, the sap oozes out and hardens, making a hard-shelled house that is very permanent. Oftentimes when the cactus falls to decay, one may pick uj) these gourd- shaped homes made by the Woodpeckers. In many places, one may see the candelabra-like branches of the giant cactus riddled with Wood- |ic-cker holes. These furnish secure homes for tile little Elf Owl and we had no difficulty in linding plenty of these tiny Owls by using the long ladder. The Elf Owl is abundant about Tucsun. Mr. lirown said, "Their food consists largely of ants, beetles, and grasshop])ers." The bird is almost entirely nocturnal in habits and is seldom seen moving about in the daytime. It is a con- stant night hunter, flitting about over the desert for insects, very seldom preying on other birds or animals. W'lLLI.\.M L, I'lXLEV. Photu by W . L. Fnilcy and U. T. Bi^hlman ELF OWL No bigger than an English Sparrow, but still an Owl ORDER OF PARROT-LIKE BIRDS Order PsiV.aci; family Psittacida SHE order of Parrot-like birds (Psittaci) is characterized by a relatively short, hooked bill; feet with four toes, two forward and two backward, and per- fectly adapted for grasping and climbing as well as for holding food when eating; tongue short, usually thick and fleshy, sometimes with the tip brush- like or fringed; tail-feathers usually numbering twelve; secondaries acutely conical; and by various other anatomical peculiarities. They are noisy in the wild state, their voices harsh and unmusical. Many of the species, but not all, learn to speak in captivity. The typical Parrots occur throughout the tropical and most of the subtropical portions of both hemispheres. They are the only Parrot-like birds found in America or Africa. The species of typical Parrots are very numerous, more than five hundred and fifty being known, of which number, however, only one, the Carolina Paroquet, is a resident of the United States, and but one other, the Thick-billed Parrot, casually crosses the international boundary at the south. Parrots, it is believed, mate for life.. Their eggs are immaculate white and are usually deposited in the trunks of trees ; the young when hatched are either partly or entirely covered with down and are cared for in the nest. The Parrot family are not good walkers, but they can climb, and they fly exceedingly well, often going long distances in search of their food of fruit and seeds. Bright colors predominate in the plumage and there is but slight, and in many species no, sexual variation in coloration. CAROLINA PAROQUET Conuropsis carolinensis (Linnccus) A. O. U. Number 382 Other Names. — Kelinky ; Carolina Parrakeet. Generrl Description. — Length, 13 inches. Color, green with yellow head. Color. — Forehead, front of crown, lores, space below eyes, and upper part of cheeks, orange ; rest of head and neck (all round), clear lemon yellow; back and shoulders, clear yellowish-green, the rump, brighter and less yellowish-green ; lesser and middle wing-coverts, deep Paris green margined with paler and brighter green ; greater coverts and inner secondaries more yellowish-green, paler and more yellowish-green termi- nally and along margin of outer webs ; secondaries (except innermost ones) and primary coverts, dark green, the primaries similar but becoming darker and duller terminally (especially on inner webs, where pass- ing into dusky on margin), the longer primaries (except outermost) broadly edged with pale greenish-yellow basally ; upper tail-coverts and tail, clear light parrot green with black shafts, the shafts of middle feathers, whitish basally ; under parts of body, including fore- neck and under tail-coverts, clear light apple green, the under wing-coverts, similar hut more yellowish- green, sometimes intermixed with yellow ; bend of wing, orange intermixed with yellow ; anal region and lower portion of thighs, yellow, sometimes tinged with orange; under primary coverts and under surface of primaries, brownish-gray, tinged with yellowish-olive, the under surface of tail similar but more strongly tinged with yellowish-olive; bill, light cream-buflf or cream-white; iris, dark brown ; bare eye space, pale flesh color or pinkish white ; legs and feet, pale flesh color or pinkish white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In hollow tree. Ecr.s : 3 to 5. wliitc. Distribution. — Formerly inhabiting the Atlantic coastal plain of the United States, from Florida to Vir- ginia (occasionally to eastern New York), and west to Texas, Oklahoma. Colorado, and north to Iowa and Wisconsin, but now totally extirpated over much the greater part of its former range and so nearly extinct that only a few small colonies may yet exist in remote and uninhabited parts of southern Florida. [122 PARROT-LIKE BIRDS 123 The Carolina Paroquet is to-day nearly, if not quite, extinct, no record of its appearance havinjj been made for several years. Once common in the Southern States from Maryland and Colo- rado, they have passed away before the guns of the white man. Observers tell us that they trav- eled about the country in flocks and their inroads on fruit orchards won for tiiem a dislike that in the end meant their inevitable destruction. \\ luii a flock was shot into, the survivors after flying a short distance would return again and again to their fallen comprmions until sometimes an entire company would be wiped out. Many of the early writers and explorers give accounts of their a])])earance and habits. Thus John I.awson, Gentleman, in his History of Caro- lina, published in London in 1714, writes: "The Parrokeetes are of a green colour, and orange- coloured half way up their heads. Of these and the Allegators there is none found to the north- ward of this Province. They visit us first when mulberries are ripe, which fruit they love ex- ceedingly. They peck the apples to eat the kernels, so that the fruit rots and perishes. They are Mischievous to Orchards. They are often taken alive and will become familiar and tame in two days. They have their nests in hollow trees in low swamp ground. They devour the Birch Buds in April, and lie hidden when the weather is frosty and hard." Many years have now passed since the Caro- lina Paroquet was seen in the Carolinas. Florida is, or was, its last stand. Dr. Frank ^L Chap- man found fifty or more individuals in the south- ern part of that State in i88g. Writing of his exi)eriences he says : " Late in the afternoon of our arrival we started a flock of seven Paro- quets from a productive patch of thistles which ])roved to be their favorite food. Evidently their meal was finished and they were ready to retire, for they darted like startled Doves through the pines, twisting and turning in everv direction, and flying with such rapidity, they were soon lost to view ; the ring of their sharp, rolling call alone furnished proof it was not all a vision." Two days later he again came upon a flock of which he writes: "Several were skillfully dis- secting the thistles they held in their feet, biting out the milky seed while the released flufTy down floated away beneath them. There was a sound of suppressed conversation; half-articulate calls. W'c were only partially concealed behind a neighboring tree, still they showed no great alarm at our presence ; curiosity was apparently the diiminant feeling." Photo by R. W. Shufcldt CAROLINA PAROQUET This is a picture of a live bird, although the species is ahnost extinct Following Dr. Chapman's discovery other ob- servers occasionally reported finding them, but these reports became less frequent as time passed and of late years have altogether ceased. T. Gilbert Pearson. 124 BIRDS OF AMERICA THICK-BILLED PARROT Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha {Szvainson) A. O. U. Number 38J.1 General Description. — Length, 16 inches. Color, green with red on head, bend of wing, and thigh. Color. — Forehead, front of crown, space over eye, and front lesser wing-coverts, deep poppy red or dull carmine; lower portion of thighs, light poppy red; a spot of dark reddish-brown or blackish-brown imme- diately in front of bare eye space, this dark color extending, narrowly, along the upper margin of the naked eye space ; under primary coverts, clear chrome- yellow, forming a conspicuous patch on under side of wing; under surface of wing-feathers and tail-feathers, plain brownish-slate color, tinged with olive in cer- tain lights ; rest of plumage, yellowish parrot green or bright oil green, brighter on sides of head, slightly lighter (sometimes duller) on under parts, bend of wing sometimes (in older individuals?) partly red; bill, dull black; iris, brownish-red; legs and feet, dull black. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting unknown, but probably similar to the rest of the genus — nest in a hollow tree, and eggs white. Distribution. — Mountains bordering the Mexican tableland, northward casually to the Chiricahua Moun- tains, .Arizona. The Thick-billed Parrot appears to be either very stupid or very curious — excessive curiosity is likely to convey the impression of stupidity — for it has an exasj^erating habit of following travelers in flocks which keep up such an uproar that every other bird and beast is likely to be- come alarmed and either make off or conceal itself. This is nowise pleasing to the traveler who happens to be a naturalist or an ornithol- ogist, and therefore intent upon observing the wild-life forms, many of which would remain in sight long enough to be looked at but for the racket made by the Parrots. The birds are most likely to be encountered in the pihon pine forests, where they feed freely upon the seeds which they extract with their beaks from the tough cones. In the United States they are found chiefly in the cai'ions of the Cliiricahua Mountains, in Arizona. George Gl.-vdden. f hoto by C. William Beebe (copyrighted) THICK-BILLED PARROT The only species of its order which finds it way across the Rio Grande ORDER OF CUCKOOS, ETC. Order Coccyges EVERAL <:;rou])s of birds with little outward resemblance to one another have been grouped in this order. There are three suborders, each with one family. The first suborder, Cuciili, and family, Cuculida, contains the Cuckoos, Anis, and Road-runners. The second, or Trogoncs, includes the Troj^ons, but one species of which enters the United States. The third suborder is that of the Kingfishers (Alcyones). CUCKOO FAMILY Order Coccyges; suborder Cuciili; family Cuculida' IRDS of the Cuckoo family are long-tailed, mostly arboreal, but sometimes terrestrial and ground-scratching. The toes are arranged in pairs, two pointing forward and two backward. There are eight to ten feathers in the tail. The nostrils are exposed, and the bristles at the corners of the mouth are either inconspicuous or missing. The bill is extremeh' variable as to size and shape, but is always compressed and more or less decurv^ed at the tip. The young are hatched naked and are cared for in the nest. The nest (if any) is of ver>' rude construction. The eggs are extremely variable as to coloration and number and are usually deposited at intervals so that eggs and young are often found in the same nest at the same time. Many foreign species are parasitic in their reproduction, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds, and allowing their young to be reared by the foster parents, often at the sacrifice of the latter's progeny, who are frequently unceremoniously crowded or thrown from the nest bv the interloper. The Cuckoo family is a ver>' extensive group of nearly world-wide distribution, only the colder regions, where their insect food is wanting, being without any representatives of it. The group is much more numerously represented in the eastern than in the western hemisphere, only eleven of the forty-six genera and forty-three of the two hundred and two species enumerated in Sharpe's Hand-list of the Genera and Species of Birds being American. All the American forms are peculiar, however, none of the genera being repre- sented elsewhere and none being parasitic as is the common European bird. This family includes : the group which bear the family name, Cuckoo, five species and subspecies of which are found in the United States; the Road-runners or Ground Cuckoos; and the Anis. As a rule the Cuckoos are birds of dull plumage, a more or less plain grayish, brown, or partly rufous coloration prevailing; but there are exceptions in some of the Old World genera. No American species of the group is remarkable for showy coloration. GROOVE-BILLED ANI Crotophaga sulcirostris Sii'ainson A. O. U. Numlier 384 Other Names.— Tick Bird; Black Witch ; Jew Bird. Color. — Dull black, faintly glossed with violet on General Description. — LenRth. 12 to 14 inches. wing-coverts, wings, and middle tail-feathers, still more Plumage, black. Upper bill with several distinct curved faintly glossed with greenish on primaries and under grooves and ridges, parallel with curve of ridge. parts; feathers of head and neck rather broadly edged [125I 126 BIRDS OF AMERICA with dull purplish-bronze, the shoulders and back and smaller wing-coverts with a broad U-shaped submar- ginal mark of dull greenish-bronze, the terminal margin of each feather and a narrow border to the bronzy sub- marginal mark, black; feathers of chest with similar but narrower and less distinct markings ; bill, black or brownish-black, often partly grayish-brown or horn color; naked skin of loral and eye regions, dull black; iris, dark brown ; legs and feet, black. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In tree, frequently orange or lemon, or thorny bush; bulky, flat; constructed of thorny twigs, sticks, lined with fibrous roots or green leaves. Eggs : 3 to 5, milky blue. Distribution. — The whole of Mexico and Central .'America, southward to Peru, Venezuela, and British Guiana; north regularly (breeding) to Rio Grande valley in Texas and Lower California, casually to Louisiana, Florida, Kansas, and southern Arizona. The Groove-billed Ani is another of the border birds which barely earns the right to be con- sidered one of Uncle Sam's feathered wards, by establishing a residence only in southern Texas. According to Captain Bendire its habitat is chiefly the lowlands, and the birds are seldom seen at an altitude of more than 700 feet above the sea. Their apparent fondness tor the company of cattle is due not only to the fact that they feed upon insects started up by the movements of the animals (which the disrepu- table Cowbird also does), but to their feeding upon parasites which they find on the animals' skins, thereby doing the steers a service similar to that performed by the famous Rhinoceros Bird for its burly companion. This work the Anis do mainly at night when the animals are lying down, though they have been seen in daylight perched on the ani- mals' backs, and one observer asserts that they will cling to a cow's tail and clear it of insects to its extremity. In flight, the Anis give the im- pression of being very loose-jointed creatures, their wings flopping clumsily and their tails blow- ing about in the breezes as if insecurely attached. Judging from the living birds only, no one would suspect that the Anis were related to the Cuckoos ; their appearance and habits are very different. The Anis are gregarious and live in open districts. Even in their nesting they are social birds, several females laying their eggs in the same nest. ROAD-RUNNER Geococcyx calif ornianus (Lesson) A. O. U. Number 385 Other Names. — Ground Cuckoo; Chaparral Cock; Snake Killer; Lizard Bird; Churca; Paisano ; Corre- camio ; Cock of the Desert. General Description. — Length, 20 to 24 inches. Color above, olive streaked with tawny-brown and bufify-whitish ; below, whitish streaked on chest. Tail, long and graduated; feathers of head bristle-tipped; entire plumage, coarse and harsh. Color. — Feathers of forehead and anterior part of crown, blue-black centrally, each with a broad lateral spot of russet often edged with buffy-grayish. the rest of crown (including bushy crest on the back of the head), blue-black, broken by edgings of tawny-brown; hindneck and upper back, blue-black, the feathers broadly edged with light tawny-brown passing into dull buffy-whitish on edges, producing a conspicuously streaked effect ; feathers of lower back, shoulders, and wing-coverts, similarly marked, but the central area of each feather, olive glossed with bronze-greenish, and edged with black, the paler markings on wing-coverts larger and paler, in form of longitudinal spots ; greater coverts, olive glossed with bronze, and with a large terminal spot of white on each web; inner secondaries olivaceous, glossed with bronze-greenish edged narrowly with black, and broadly margined (on both webs) by dull whitish ; primary coverts, olive-dusky broadly mar- gined at ends with dull white ; primaries, blackish, faintly glossed with greenish, margined terminally with dull white and crossed, near middle portion, by a broad band of the same, composed of marginal spots on outer webs only ; rump, plain grayish-brown ; upper tail- coverts and middle pair of tail-feathers, bronzy-olive glossed with purplish and margined with dull white; remaining feathers, glossy blue-black on outer webs, more greenish on inner webs, tipped, and narrowly margined (on outer web) with white, decreasing in extent to the second pair ; lores, dull whitish, the feathers with projecting black bristle-like shafts; cheeks and space below eyes, mixed dull whitish and pale tawny- brownish, barred and spotted with black; sides of head, streaked with black and dull whitish ; chin and throat, mostly dull white; forencck, sides of neck and chest light ochraceous-bufT passing into whitish on edges of feathers, each feather with a center streak of black, these streaks narrow in front, much broader on sides of neck and chest; rest of under parts, plain grayish CUCKOO FAMILY 127 buffy-white ; inner webs of lateral tail-feathers, pale gray on (inder surface in front of the white tip ; bill, dusky horn color ; iris, golden yellow to orange ; bare eye space around blue in front passing into bluish-white beneath and behind eye, the rear portion orange-red ; legs and feet, pale bluish, the large scales of leg pale yellowish or cream color margined with pale bluish. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually in cacti, mesquite. sage brush, or thorny bushes ; a large coarse structure 01 sticks, lined with grass, feathers, strips of bark, snake skin, or rootlets, with slight depression. Kggs : 4 to 6 usually, but sometimes 2 or 12, chalky white or pale yellowish. Distribution. — California, Colorado, Kansas, and western and middle Texas, south through Lower Cali- iornia and the table-land of Mexico to Puebla. The Road-nmner is one of the most striking characters of the cactus belt of the Soiilliwest. When we first went to Tucson, Arizona, we were anxious to find a Road-runner. Day after day, we searched throujifh the cactus and kept our eyes open. We found several old nests and occa- sionally we would catch a glimpse of a slim, long-tailed bird running through the cactus. One day when we least expected it, a Road-runner ,'ind ready to leave home. This certainly verified the statement of Elliott Coues : " Perfectly fresh eggs and newly hatched young may be found together, and by the time the last young are breaking the shell, the others may be graded up to half the size of the adult." I have occasionally seen an old Road-runner that takes a delight in out-distancing a team of horses, but sometimes a Road-runner is not ac- PI' 'J ''•^'** •,'.,. -„ ^irim^ i'ii-iM W . L. I'lnlcy 1.1 11. I. li..iilm,,ii ROAD-RUNNER slid across the road, hopped up into a choUa cactus and was instantly lost to sight in the thorny mass. W'e drove around the bush slowly, once, twice, closer and closer till we could see through the tangle. But no Road-runner! She had disappeared, and yet she could hardlv have escaped without our seeing her. A slight move- ment in the cactus — there she was, sitting bolt ujiright holding a lizard in her bill. Until she moved, she was as completely hidden as if she had not been there. In this nest were one fresh egg, one (t^g just ready to hatch, two featherless black-skinned young birds, and two young ones about grown customed to our modern method of traveling. One day a friend was spinning down the Oracle Road in his automobile when, at the turn, a Road-runner dropped into line ahead and set the pace down the smooth stretch. The driver turned on a little more gasoline. The Road-runner looked over his tail at the horseless carriage. It was gaining on him ! As the machine bore down on the astonished bird, the feathered racer was scared. He cocked his tail suddenly to put on the brake, made a sharp turn to the left, dodged through the cactus and creosote and away he went at top speed as far as he could be seen. 128 BIRDS OF AMERICA While some people accuse the Road-runner of killing other birds, especially young Quail, our experience showed that he lived almost entirely on lizards. The young birds in the nest were fed on lizards almost from the time they were out of the egg. The reptile was always killed and then thrust head down into the mouth of the youngster. The tail for a time would hang out of his mouth, but as the head end was digested, the young bird gulped a little now and then, until finally the end of the tail disappeared. William L. Finley. YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus americanus americanus (Linnccus) A. O. U. Number 387. See Color Plates 58 Other Names. — Rain Crow ; Rain Dove ; Storm Crow ; Chow-Chow ; Kow-Kow. General Description. — Length, 11 or 12 inches. Color above, grayish-brown ; below, white. Color. — Above, plain grayish-brown, faintly glossed with bronzy, usually becoming more grayish on fore- head, the outer webs of pyiinarics. suffused with rufes- cent brozcn. sometimes nearly uniform dull cinnamon- rufous; middle pair of tail-fealhers, usually becoming more dusky terminally, tlie remaining tail-feathers, black, faintly glossed with bluish or greenish, passing white, faintly shaded with pale bluish-gray, except on under parts of body and under tail-coverts, which are sometimes very faintly tinged with pale buffy : bill, slate-black above, yellow on more than basal half below, and on cutting edge above ; iris, dark brown ; naked eyelids, grayish ; legs and feet, pale bluish-gray. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Generally in fork of a tree as high as 25 feet up ; a frail structure of twigs, grass, leaves, and catkins, so shallow that it is remarkable the eggs do not roll out oftener. Eggs: 2 to 6, pale dull, greenish-blue. Drawing by R. I. Brasher YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO ( J nat. size) Mysterious and secretive in habits, but highly useful into grayish-brown basally, each tail-feather, very broadly tipl'ed zvith white, tliis decreasing in extent from the outermost, on which the white extends much farther on the outer web than on the inner; sides of head, grayish-brown, sometimes concolor with crown and hindneck, sometimes much darker ; below eye, lower portion of sides of head, and entire under parts, dull Distribution. — Parts of North and South America ; breeds from North Dakota. Minnesota, southern Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick south to Louisi- ana and northern Florida, and west to South Dakota, Nebraska, and Oklalioma ; migrates througli the West Indies and Central .America: winters in .South America south to Ecuador. Bolivia, and Argentina. BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus erythrophthalmus ( jyilsn7i) A. O. LT. Number 388. See Color I'late 58 Other Names. — Rain Crow : Kow-Kow. General Description. — Length, 11 or 12 inches. Color above, olive-brown ; below, white. Color. — Above, plain olivaceous hair-brown, glossed with bronze, passing into a more grayish hue on fore- head, the inner primaries and outer secondaries some- times slightly more rufescent basally; tail-feathers (except middle pair) twrrowly but consfieuously ti(--tailed Trogon, and it is rare. The special characteristics of the Trogon fainily are: bill short (much shorter than the head), broad at the base, and the edges toothed; the gape or corners of the mouth well covered with bristle-tipped feathers; feet weak, the lower section of the leg shorter than the longest front toe, and front toes united for about half their length; wing short, rounded, and ver>' concave underneath; tail longer than the wing and composed of twelve feathers; plumage dense and soft and easily detached; colors bright, brilliantly metallic in adult males, and the under parts of the body pure red, orange, or yellow; young usually spotted and without bright colors. COPPERY-TAILED TROGON Trogon ambiguus (Gould) A. O. U. Number 389. General Description. — Length, ii-34 inche.s. Males are metallic bronze-green above, and geranium-red below; females are brown above, and pale geranium- red below. Color. — .•\dult Male: Forehead (sometimes part, Vol. II — 10 occasionally whole of crown, also), black; back of head (usually part of crown), hindneck. back, shoulders, and forward portion of lesser wing-covert region, bright metallic-green, bronze-green, or golden-bronze, passing into metallic pure green or bronze-green, on rump and 132 BIRDS OF AMERICA upper tail-coverts ; middle pair of tail-feathers bright bronze or copper-bronze, changing to a greenish hue in some lights (the color sometimes more greenish basally), broadly and abruptly tipped with black or bluish-black, the next pair of feathers similarly colored on outer web, but inner web darker and more purplish- bronze passing into blackish basally, the terminal black area broader and less sharply defined ; remaining tail- feathers very broadly tipped with white (this white terminal area margined basally by a narrow and usu- ally interrupted bar of black) ; wing-coverts, deli- cately marked with fine wavy lines of black and white ; primaries, slate-black, the outer webs mostly pale gray or grayish-white ; lores, cheeks, ear region, chin, and throat, uniform black or slate-black; chest, bright metallic bronze-green, bronze, or copper-bronze, suc- ceeded by a crescentic band of pure white; the remain- ing under parts, pure geranium-red; thighs, slate-black or blackish-slate, the longer feathers broadly tipped with pink or pinkish-white ; bill, yellow ; naked eyelids, red or orange ; iris, dark brown ; feet, brownish. Adult Female: Forehead, and at least forward portion of crown, slate color or brownish-slate, passing into plain brown on back of head, hindneck, back, and shoulders; the rump and upper tail-coverts similar but (especially the latter) paler; wing-coverts, similar in color to rump and upper tail-coverts; middle pair of tail- feathers, vandyke-brown to chocolate-brown, broadly and abruptly tipped with black; next pair, blackish- brown or brownish-black, the outer web edged (except terminally) with lighter brown; remaining feathers, extensively tipped with white; lores and under eye region, dark-slaty or blackish ; ear region crossed obliquely by a broad bar of pale brownish-buff or brownish-white and tipped by an oblique bar of black; a broad brownish-white eye-ring, interrupted on upper and lower eyelids ; cheeks, chin, and throat, brownish- slate to grayish-brown, passing into brown (like color of back) on chest; and crossed immediately behind brown jugular area by a crescentic band of brownish- white or pale brownish-buft' ; lower abdomen, flanks, anal region, and under tail-coverts, light geranium- red ; thighs, slate color, the longer feathers broadly tipped with whitish; bill, yellow (duller than in adult male) ; iris and feet as in adult male. Young: Head, neck, and breast, dull brownish-gray or grayish-brown; an eye-ring and an oblique bar across ear region of white; tail similar to adult female; remainder of upper parts, brown; under parts in general, grayish-white; wing-coverts with huffy spots margined with black. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A hole in a hank, about 18 inches deep. Eggs: 3, dull white. Distribution. — From southern Arizona and extreme southern Texas south over greater part of Mexico. The Coppery-tailed Trogon utters its call in the manner of the Peacock, sitting bolt upright on a limb, its long tail hanging straight down, and its bill pointed at the zenith. This call is a series of soft and rather musical notes not un- like those of a contented hen. Those who ex- amine mounted specimens should remember that the geranium-red color of the breast plumage is likely to fade considerably after the skin is re- moved from the bird's body. KINGFISHERS Order Coccyges; suborder Ale y ones; family Alccdiuidce |HE Kingfisher family is nearly cosmopolitan and is very numerotisly repre- sented in the eastern hemisphere, especially in the Malay Archipelago and thence to New Guinea, where a great variety of types are found, many of them among the most beautiful of birds. There are about 200 species in all. The group is poorly represented in America, where occur only two genera with about 11 species and subspecies. Only one genus is found north of the Rio Grande. The American Kingfishers are a well-marked group of birds. Their heads are large, completely feathered, and more or less crested, though sometimes only the feathers at the back of the head and on the nape are slightly elongated. Their bills are long, strong, straight, and much deeper than wide at the base. Their wings are moderate to rather short with the longest primaries always longer than the longest secondaries; the tip of the wing is rather pointed. Tail feathers number twelve, and the tail is from one-half to two-thirds as long as the wing and is slightly rounded. The feet are relatively very small ; the first toe is much shorter than the inner toe and connected with the second so as to form with it and the others a broad flattened sole, the surface of which is conspicuously granulated. In coloration none of the American Kingfishers have the bright hues of the spectrum though some have the upper parts of a rather dull metallic bronze-green. In all of the American forms the sexes are more or less different in coloration. KINGFISHERS 133 As their name implies, they feed chiefly on small fishes, though some of the Old World species are forest birds and subsist on reptiles and other forms of animal life. Although small fishes are the principal portion of the diet of Kingfishers, they destroy also a few aquatic insects which do injur}- to the young of fish and frogs. Some of the forest-inhabiting species of the eastern hemisphere nest in cavities of trees, but the true Kingfishers nest in holes which they dig in banks. The five to eight eggs are invariably pure white. The young are hatched naked and are cared for in the nest after the manner of perching birds. BELTED KINGFISHER Ceryle alcyon {Lhnicnts) A. O. V. .\uinl)cr .J90 Other Names. — Kinglisher; the Halcyon. General Description. — Length. 12 inches. Color of upper part.s and of belt, bluish-gray; under parts, white; females with a reddish band across abdomen. Head, crested. Color. — .Xiu'i.T M.ale: .'\bovc. including sides of head, clear bluish-gray interrupted by a white collar across hindneck ; feathers of crown (especially those of crest) with a center streak of black, those of back, wings, etc., with very slender black shaft-streaks, wing- coverts and secondaries usually with a few minute irregular white markings, the latter with portion of outer web ne.xt to shaft and most of inner web, black; primary coverts and primaries, slate-black, the first minutely tipped with white, the primaries with basal half spotted with white, the inner ones, together with the outer secondaries, rather narrowly tipped with white; middle pair of tail-feathers, bluish-gray with a center streak of black (this sometimes confined to shaft), the latter usually margined on each side by small white spots ; remaining tail-feathers, slate-black, the outer web (except of lateral pair) broadly edged with bluish-gray, the inner black portion spotted with white, the inner webs barred with white ; outermost similar but without distinct, if any, bluish-gray edging, the white spots reaching to outer margin ; a conspicu- ous spot of white in front of eye and another but .•^tc Color Plate 58 smaller white spot immediately beneath eye ; rear of cheeks, sides of neck, chin, throat, and foreneck, im- maculate white, the front of cheeks deep bluish-gray or broadly streaked with the same ; a broad baud of hluish-tjray across chest: rest of under parts, white, the sides and flanks mostly bluish-gray (usually inter- mixed or flecked with white) ; under wing-coverts, and greater part of basal half of inner webs of primaries, immaculate white ; bill, black ; irij, dark brown ; legs and feet, livid slate color. Adult Femaie: Similar to the adult male btit icjV/i o band (sometimes incomplete or interrupted) across lower breast, together with sides and flanks, cinnamon-rufnus, the innermost under wing- coverts sometimes tinged or suffused with the same. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: At extreme end of a bur- row in the bank, from 4 to 15 feet long. Eggs: 5 to 8, laid on the bare floor of the enlarged extremity of the tunnel. Distribution. — North America and northern South .'\merica ; breeds from northwestern Alaska, north- western Mackenzie, central Keewatin, northern Quebec, and Newfoundland south to the southern border of the United States; winters from British Columbia, Nebraska, Illinois. Indiana, Ohio, and Virginia south to the West Indies, Colombia, and Guiana, and irregu- larly as far north as Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Ontario. Drawing by R. I. Brasher BELTED KINGFISHER (male; » nat. size) A feathered Ike Walton who is a stickler for his fishing rights 134 BIRDS OF AMERICA This is one of the pronounced and picturesque personalities of the feathered world — a hand- some, sturdy and self-reliant bird who makes his living bv the persistent, skillful, and largely harmless practice of an ancient and respected art. It seems worth while to emphasize at once YOONG KINGFISHER Emerging from its nest-burrow the character and purpose of the Kingfisher's activities. Too many of his human imitators fear, or even believe, that he is destructive to game fish, especially brook trout. But it seems that this charge cannot be substantiated, and that the bird catches chiefly minnows, chubs, and related shallow-water fish which are pests to the fisherman. And it is known that a very con- siderable part of his diet is composed of craw- fish, frogs, and even injurious beetles and locusts, which he takes when the fishing is bad, because of rough water, or for other reasons. Conse- quently, most discerning and well-informed disciples of the immortal Izaak are disposed to take their hats oflf to this brother fisherman-in- feathers who is always good company on a trout brook and is never without his click-reel. What wonderful eyesight he must have — little, if any, less keen than that of the Eagles and the Hawks. !\Iany of his dives after his prey he makes from a fluttering halt in his flight, ten or fifteen feet above the surface of the water ; but not infrequently he makes his plunge, like a blue meteor, from a perch fifty feet or more from the water, striking it with an impact which, one would think, would completely knock the wind out of him. It is as graceful and daring a " high dive " as is to be seen any- where. But think of the vision which must be required to see, at that distance, a fish, often no more than two or three inches long, and gener- ally several inches below the surface I Angling has been called the " contemplative sport," and it is true that the typical trout fisher- man likes to fish alone, though at other times he may not be a noticeably unsocial person. Nor, if he is a true sportsman, will he be secretive with his friends as to his favorite fishing grounds. With the Kingfisher it is diflferent. Very likely he enjoys fishing; at any rate, he acts as if he does ; but after all, for him fishing is a serious business, not a diversion. Consequently, he is not a gregarious bird, and furthermore he is likely to have pretty definite ideas about his " fishing rights." That is, after he has estab- lished himself in a certain locality, he resents the appearance therein of any other Kingfisher and he will attack and drive away any intruders if he can. It is hardly fair to consider this sheer selfishness. For him, fishing is pretty hard work, demanding both patience and skill ; and besides, the supply of fish he can catch is never actually bountiful. So he cannot be blamed for keeping a sharp lookout for trespassers on his preserve. Though the Kingfisher may sometimes actually spear fish with his long bill, he generally seizes them with it. and usually flies immediately to a nearby perch where he beats his prey to death and then swallows it, head foremost, an opera- tion which sometimes is not accomplished with- out much squirming and writhing. Or, if he has young to feed, he flies straight to his burrow in a nearby bank. " Among the many legends connected with the Photo by H. H. Cleaves Courtesi' ot .\,il. Asiu. .Vial .Sul. KINGFISHER Flying from nest in bank, Princess Bay, Staten Island, New York Euro])ean Kingfisher," says \\'illiani Dutcher, " one relates that originally it was somberly clothed : but that a Kingfisher was liberated from Noah's ark and flew toward the setting sun, whereupon the sky was reflected from its back, while its breast was scorched by the ravs of the KIX(^,FISHERS 135 sun, and ever afterwards its plumage showed the colors of the evening sky. Another lieauti- ful old fable is that Alcyone, daughter of -•I'^olus, grieved so deeply for her husband, who had been shipwrecked, that she threw herself into the sea, and was immediately changed into a Kingfisher, called ' Halcyon ' by the ancient Latin-sjieaking peojjle. " Pliny says : ' Halcyons lay and sit about mid- winter when daies be shortest; and the time whiles they are broodie is called the halcyon daies ; for during that season the sea is calm and navigable.' [The popular belief was that the seven days preceding the shortest day of the year were used in building the nest, and the seven days following were devoted to hatching the eggs. These fourteen days were called ' halcyon days.'] I'Aen now the adjective ' halcyon ' repre- sents calm and peaceful days devoted to pleasant outings in woods or fields or along ocean-beaches, or to i)addling u]) some quiet river, all the while learning to know the trees and wild flowers, and the songs and forms of birds." George Gladden. TEXAS KINGFISHER Ceryle americana septentrionalis Sharpe A. O. U. Number 391. Other Name. — Tex.m Green Kingfisher. General Description. — Length, 8 inches. Color above, green; below, white; males with a patch of chcstnut-rutous on the chest. No crest. Color. — Adult Male: Above, including sides of head (except cheeks), dark metallic bronze-green, darker and duller on crown, especially the forehead, interrupted by a white collar across hindneck ; fore- head freckled with whitish; wing-coverts, usually immaculate, but sometimes with a few minute spots or streaks of white ; secondaries with a sub-basal narrow band of white, continuous across both webs, this white increasing in extent on inner secondaries where it involves the whole basal half; about midway between this band and tip of secondaries is another band, com- posed of small white s])Ots confined to outer portion of outer web. this followed by another one of much smaller white spots, w^hile usually each secondary has a minute white terminal spot or edging; inner pri- maries, usually with a single small white spot on outer web; middle pair of tail-feathers, mostly blackish. glosseil with bluish or bluish-green, usually spotted on inner web with white, sometimes wholly blackish ; next jiair, blackish, the inner web with roundish white spots; four outer feathers (on each side), immaculate white for basal half or more, the terminal portion, blackish broken by white spots or bars on inner web ; front of cheeks, greenish-black, the remainder white (sometimes spotted with greenish-black in front or along lower portion), forming a conspicuous stripe which involves the side of neck; chin, throat, and center of upper fore- neck, immaculate white; sides of upper foreneck. chest, and side portion of upper breast, deep chestnut-rufous; rest of under parts, white, the sides and flanks heavily spotted with greenish-black, this heavy spotting extend- ing across lower breast ; under tail-coverts with spots of greenish-black; under wing-coverts, white, with a large V-shaped area of dusky; inner web of wings with large spots of white; bill, black; iris, dark brown; legs and feet, dusky. Adult Fem.ale: Similar to the adult male but without any chestnut-rufous, the upper chest, immaculate buffy-white or pale buff (like foreneck. Photograph by .\. A. Allen BELTED KINGFISHER WITH SMALL SUCKER 136 BIRDS OF AMERICA throat, and chin), the lower chest crossed by a broad band heavily spotted with greenish-black, the lower breast, also with a similar, but usually less distinct, band ; white of under parts tinged with buff, especially the chin, throat, and upper chest, which are sometimes wholly light buff. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A burrow in a bank. Eggs : 5 or 0, pure porcelain white, thin-shelled, de- posited in the hollowed-out end of the cavity on the bare floor. Distribution. — Southern Texas and Mexico, south to Panama. The Texas Kingfisher, since it occurs only in the southern parts of Texas, is essentially a Mexican, if not a Central American, bird. The rattle of this small fisherman is like that of the lusty northern Kingfi.sher. bu