''i.'Si Beside iJie viain topic mzs aovrv ttt^c , Subject No. On page Szibject No. On page ^ p . \ - '"i D 5« - y V I ol. I- If', , Occ i i> "; '^ ni ^M-o ■,.w i'i^\-^-^ Cicv* Mvf, J?niJsi iU. t^dinJurxUiA WiiUm Lvtku^r^h^s ^^^.^MyrtT^im ' Hurl Jfum Vol I t. 7. Mvf'x Thfsijk^ dtl' If[i{lim'iMtd6i & WaUoru l(/Jio(ff^het''y '/^7Ul ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. I. — Some Account of an Orchideous House, constructed at Pen- llergare, South Wales. By J. D, Llewelyn, Esq., F.H.S. (Communicated October 28, 1845.) [Mr. Llewelyn having mentioned to the Vice- Secretary that he had constructed an epiphyte house, through which a water- fall had been directed so as to dash over rocks, and finally to flow into a basin forming the floor of the house, that gentleman was solicited to favour the Society with some account of it, which he has done in the following interesting communication, accompanied by an interior view of the house, which forms the frontispiece of the present volume.] I enclose with this the ground-plan and section of the stove, which 1 promised to send. These will show the size and shape of the building, and the arrangement of its pipes and heating apparatus, and the manner also in which the water for the sup- ply of the cascade is conducted to the top of the house by means of a pipe communicating with a pond at a higher level. This pipe is warmed by passing with a single coil through the boiler, and terminates at the top of the rock-work, where it pours a con- stant supply of water over three projecting irregular steps of rough stone, each of which catches the falling stream, dividing it into many smaller rills and increasing the quantity of misty spray. At the bottom the whole of the water is received into the pool which occupies the centre of the floor of the stove, where it widens out into an aquarium ornamented with a little island overgrown like the rock-work with Orchideae, ferns, and lycopods. The disposition of the stones in the rock-work would depend much on the geological strata you have to work with : in my case they lie flat and evenly bedded, and thus the portions of the rock-work are placed in more regular courses than would be ne- cessary in many other formations. In limestone or granite coun- tries, designs much more ornamental than mine might, I think, be easily contrived. The account of the splendid vegetation which borders the cataracts of tropical rivers, as described by Schomburgk, gave me the first idea of trying this experiment. I read in the ' Sertum Orchidaceum ' his graphic description of the falls of the Berbice and Essequibo, on the occasion of his first discovery of Huntlej^a violacea. I was delighted with the beautiful picture which his words convey, and thought that it might be better represented than is usual in the stoves of this country. With this view I began to work,. and added the rock-work which I describe to a house already in use for the cultivation of b ORCHIDEOUS HOUSE AT PENLLERGARE. Orchideous plants. I found no difficulty in re-arranging it for its new design, and after a trial now of about two years can say that it has entirely answered the ends I had in view. The moist stones were speedily covered with a thick carpet of seedling ferns, and the creeping stems of tropical lycopods, among the fronds of which many species of orchideae delighted to root themselves. Huntleya violacea was one of the first epiphytes that I planted, and it flowered and throve in its new situation, as I hoped and expected. The East Indian genera, however, of Vanda, Saccolabium, Aerides, and other caulescent sorts, similar in habit and growth, were the most vigorous of all, and many of these in a very short time only required the use of the pruning- knife to prevent their overgrowing smaller and more delicate species. Plants that are grown in this manner have a wild luxuriance about them that is unknown to the specimens cultivated in the ordinarj' manner, and to myself they are exceedingly attractive, more resembling what one fancies them in their native forests — true air-plants, depending for their subsistence on the humid at- mosphere alone. Different species thus intermingle together in a beautiful con- fusion, Dendrobium, and Camarotis, and Renanthera, side by side, with wreaths of flowers and leaves interlacing one another, and sending their long roots to drink from the mist of the fall, or even from the water of the pool below. Many species are cultivated upon the rocks themselves, others upon blocks of wood, or baskets suspended from the roof, and thus sufficient room is secured for a great number of plants. At the same time the general effect is beautiful, and the constant humidity kept up by the stream of falling water suits the con- stitution of many species in a degree that might be expected from a consideration of their native habits ; and I would strongly re- commend tlie adoption of this or some similar plan to all who have the means of diverting a stream of water from a level higher than the top of their stove. This, I think, in most situations might be easily contrived. My own house lies on higli ground, and the water is brought from a considerable distance, but yet I found very little of difficulty or of expense in its construction ; for it must be borne in mind that a small quantity of water is sufficient, and that this, after passing through the stove, might be conveniently used for garden purposes. It must be remembered also that this plan may be added to any existing stove, and that the sole expense will be for the pipe to conduct tlie stream, and for the labour of the carriage and arrangement of the rock-work. OKCHIDEOrS HOUSE AT rENLLEEGARE. Reference. 1 Boiler aud flue. 2. Fireplace. 3, Coalshed. 4. Hot-water pipes. 5. Wa- ter tank. 6. Hot-water cisterns. 7. Doorway. 7a. Rock-work. 11. Pipe with hot water to fall over the rock-work. 12. Cold-water pipe. 13. btop- cock. 14. Boiler. 15. Ash-pit. ORCHIDEOUS HOrSE AT PENLLERGARE. MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MUKBAIN. 9 II. — Observations, Botanical and Physiological, on the Potato Murrain. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. Few subjects have attracted more attention, or have been more variously canvassed, than the malady with which Potatoes have been almost universally visited during the autumn of 1845. The press has teemed with notices the most contradictory ; the attention of scientific men in every direction has been engaged by it ; and three, at least, of the principal governments of Eu- rope have issued commissions to examine into its etiology, and to discover, if possible, a remedy. It is not indeed the first time that very serious disease has existed in this important article of food : more than half a cen- tury back, cultivators were much alarmed by a disease known under the name of the Curl, which committed at that time im- mense ravages, and is even now, especially in the North, a very formidable evil. It consists in a sudden check of growth in the young shoots, and, in consequence, a failure of produce. As is the case with so many diseases of plants, the cause is very im- perfectly known. In 1830 a disease was first noticed in Germany, called, from one of its leading features, the dry rot. For several successive years it was observed to increase in intensity, threatening to put an end to the cultivation of potatoes in the affected districts. The attention of the Bavarian Government especially was called to the subject, and Martins has published an admirable account of it.* The tubers, when stored for winter use or when planted, become impregnated with a kind of mould, and are at length so hard that tliey can scarcely be broken, and, instead of producing shoots, merely throw out a few small misshapen tubers. He attributes it to the growth of a peculiar fungus. A somewhat similar disease, but differing in the circumstance that the tubers become soft instead of hard, has certainly been prevalent for many years without attracting much attention, and is probably more or less mixed up with the particular disease to which so much consideration has of late been paid. It is marked by the presence of parasitic fungi, which for the most part appear under the form of hemispherical masses bursting through the cu- ticle, and is referred by Fries to his genus Periola. The earliest record I am at present acquainted with of the existence of this genus is in 1815, in which year it was characterised by Fries, f for the plant of Tode,| to which he refers, published in 1790, * Die Kaitoffel-Epidemie. MiinchcD, 1842. t Fries, Obs. Myc, vol. i. p. 205. % Fungi Meckl. Fasc. i. p. 6, 1790. 10 MK. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURKAIN. is, I think, clearly something different, occurring on the stalks, and not on the tubers. In this disease the tubers, though ap- parently healthy when stored, are rapidly destroyed by the fungus. Another disease, arising from a very different fungus, is fre- quent, especially in calcareous districts, and is known commonly by the name of the scab, the surface of the potatoes being covered with pustules, which at length become cup-shaped, and are pow- dered within with an olive-yellow meal, consisting of the spores of a fungus. This also has been partially investigated by Mai*- tius, who has illustrated his observations with some characteristic figures. Two other diseases are mentioned in the work of Martius, whicli are, however, so imperfectly known, that it is not neces- sary to notice them upon the present occasion. In all the cases referred to above, the disease has either been confined principally to some one country, or, if more widely diffused, its effects have not been of such magnitude as to excite any general fears ; whereas, in the present instance, the whole of Western Europe, from Norway to Bordeaux, seems almost equally to have suffered, and the ravages have not been less in Canada or the Northern parts of the United States of America. It is probable that it has existed for some time without attracting much attention : at any rate it is not the birth of one year only, as the advocates simply of atmospheric influ- ence suppose. Dr. Morren* informs us in his admirable little pamphlet that it has been known for two or three years in Belgium. It appeared in the province of Liege in 1842, and on the 24th of March in the following year he laid before a large assembly of landowners its history, and the means of contending against it. Were this testimony by itself, we could not refuse to take it at the mouth of one who has paid so much attention to the sub- ject, and is so intimately acquainted with all the phases of the disease. But the testimony is far from being solitary. In an excellent article in a Lille paper of the 26th of September, kindly forwarded to me by Monsieur Desmazieres, it is stated that the disease of 1845 is identical with that which he described in a Memoir presented in the latter part of 1844 f to the Royal Society of Lille. The volume of the Transactions of that Society, even for 1843, has only just appeared ; I applied therefore to the * instructions populaires sur les moyens de combattre et de detruire la maladie actuelle des Pommes de Terre. Bruxelles, 1845. t The exact title of the Memoir is ' Recherches sur I'alteration observee dans le tubercule de la Pomme de Terre grise cultivee dans I'arroudissement de Lille en 1844.' MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 1 1 author for an abstract of his paper, which he sent me with his accustomed kindness. The disease was not observed when the potatoes Avere harvested, but appeared towards the end of the year. M. Desmazieres considers it as certain that the malady was identical with that of 1845. As however he had no oppor- tunity of examining all the appearances presented by the disease, and no traces of the peculiar mould which uniformly accom- panies it, at least before the putrescence of the tubers was visible, though other fungi were very abundant, this case per- haps may not be thought quite so convincing as the former ; or at least it may, with all deference to the excellent author, be surmised that it was greatly modified by the presence of a dis- tinct disease in company with it. Mr. J. E. Teschemacher,* in a letter to Mr. Colman, the Agricultural Commissioner from the State of Massachusetts, attributes the potato disease of 1844 to a fungus. This opinion was, I believe, more fully stated in a Memoir published at Boston, by the same author, for which Dr. Morren, in a letter dated October 25, refers me to the official reports of the United States, but to which, unfortunately, I have no access. Mr. Teschema- cher indeed compares the fungus to the smut in corn ; but taking other documents into consideration, it does not appear that this is to be interpreted rigidly. The disease, beyond all doubt, was very prevalent in Canada and the adjoining parts of the United States in 1844.t The best account of the disease of Canada in 1844 is in a letter to Dr. Bellingham, which was read by him before *the Dublin Natural History Society on the 14th of November, 1845, and published, together with much important matter from himself and Mr. W. Andrews, in 'Saunders's News Letter' of November 17 : — " During the months of July and August we had repeated and heavy showers, with oppressive heat, and an atmosphere strongly charged with electricity. Towards the close of the month of Augus't I observed the leaves to be marked with black spots, as if ink had been sprinkled over them. They began to wither, emitting a peculiar offensive odour ; and before a fort- night, the field which had been singularly luxuriant and almost rank became arid and dried up, as if by a severe frost. I had the potatoes dug out during the month of September, when about two-thirds were either positively rotten, partially decayed and swarming with worms, or spotted with brownish coloured patches, resembling flesh that had been frost-bitten. These parts * Gardener's Chronicle, 1845, p. 125. f lb., p. 648. 12 ME. BEBKELEY ON THE POTATO MtnaKAlN. were soft to the touch, and upon the decayed potatoes I observed a whitish substance like mould." This was clearly an aggra- vated form of the disease of 1845. It is stated by Mr. Elliott,* of Florence Court, that the disease has been for the last three or four years prevalent in that part of Ireland ; and Mr. Smeed, an eminent agriculturist of Bromston, near St. Peter's, in the Isle of Thanet, observed it in 1844.t It is not improbable that the disease which made its appearance in St. Helena, in 1844,$ was really identical, and it is possible that the rust observed by Staudinger§ at Hamburgh some years since, was the same, if it be not rather referable to the disease mentioned by Martins under the name of Rust, which, though in some respects resembling that before us, differs too widely to allow of their being considered the same. It is impossible, in- deed, to form any accurate judgment where the details are so imperfect and insufficient. In a recent communication to the French Academy, Nov. 17, 1845, M. Boussingault states, on the information of M. Joachim Acosta, that the malady is well known in rainy years at Bogota, where the Indians live almost entirely on potatoes. They do not hesitate to use them, merely cutting off the affected part. M. Acosta believes that the disease has been always familiar to the Indians. II It seems then clear, from the instances adduced, and others possibly may be found which have escaped my observation, tliat the disease cannot be considered as confined to the year 1 845 ; and' therefore, in endeavouring to ascertain its causes, it is ab- solutely imperative to keep this fact in view. The details are not indeed always sufficient, from the very nature of the case, for us to form a judgment from them ourselves ; but putting all the information together, and properly estimating the parties from whom the evidence springs, we cannot fail to assent to their combined testimony.^ The first notice of the disease in any of our own journals was by Dr. Bell Salter in the ' Gardener's Chronicle' for August 16, * Gard. Chr. 1845, p. 674. t lb. I Gard. Chr. 1844, p. 359. § Isis, 1832. II L'Institut, Nov. 19, 1845. This singularly confirms Dr. Morren's notion that the disease, like some other afflictions of the vegetable kingdom, is of American origin. ^ The Brussels Commission, however, came to a different conclusion. See ' Rapport fait au Conseil Central de Salubrite Publique de Bruxelles sur la Maladie des Pommes de Terre, par M. Dieudonue, rapporteur.' They were, evidently, not in possession of all the evidence which has just been ad- duced. M. Durand, of Caen, does not consider the disease a new one. MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 13 p. 560, when it had become so prevalent in the Lsle of Wight as to attract general notice and to excite great alarm. It had doubt- less made its appearance some weeks previously, but probably not so early as in Belgium, where it was observed about the 10th of July, and on the 18th of August it had been so fully dis- cussed that Dr. Morren, following the track of Dr. Van Oye and Mile. Libert, published in the Belgian ' Independance ' of that date a very full account, and suggested remedial measures. If one of the.se had been followed generally, viz. removing at once the diseased haulm, it is, I think, most probable that we should have heard little more of the disease.* A week after Dr. Bell Salter's first notice it was pretty gene- ral in the South of England, for on the 23rd of August few sound samples of potatoes were to be found in Covent Garden market, and Dr. Lindley had been able from personal observa- tion to write the excellent article to which we shall presently have occasion to advert. The first public notice taken of the subject at Paris, as far as I can discover, was at the Societt^ Philomathique on the 30th of August, when the subject was introduced by Dr. Montagne, a few days before any commu- nication had been made at the Academy. Since this period up to the present time it has been the subject of constant investiga- tion. The disease then appears to have commenced in Belgium and to have radiated from thence, taking a gradual progress to the north and west, when it had become established in the south. On the 30th of August it was not known in the midland counties, though a few days after it was very general. It commenced in Ireland about the 7th of September, and somewhat later in Scotland. At the end of October Dr. Bell Salter informs usf that the disease was making its appearance in young plants. Opinions of the most contrary description have been advanced respecting the cause of the disease, some attributing it entirely to the peculiar season, which, granting it to have been exactly such as the advocates of this notion assume, might more readily be admitted were it not certain that the malady has been pre- valent even to a great extent in one season at least very different from that of 1845 ;| others refer it to electric influences, to * The evidence indeed is somewhat contradictory on this point, but pre- ponderates greatly in favour of the practice. The fact that diseased tubers occur sometimes before the haulm is much affected shows that it would not have entirely arrested the malady. t Gar. Chron. 1845, p. 742. X Up to the 28th of September the mean temperature of 184.5 was nearly three degrees below that of 1844 ; the quantity of rain during the corre- sponding period of 1844 being scarcely more than half the average. 14 MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. microscopic insects, to an epidemic resembling cholera, to the practice of raising potatoes constantly by division of the tubers, and especially from tubers cut in spring, to the use of animal manure, or to the degeneracy of the plant itself, but without any data upon which to found their assertions : others, again, to the influence of a parasitic fungus which first attacks the leaves and ultimately the tubers. Before reviewing these opinions it will be well to describe the phases exhibited by the disease, reserving to the end of the memoir the more purely botanical points con- nected with the subject. The chemical part of the question does not fall within my scope, and the remedial measures have been already exhibited in a form generally accessible to English readers in the reports of the Irish Commissioners. The progress of the disease has been described in almost the same terms by all who have written on the subject. It was at first indeed believed by many that it began in the tubers and was propagated upwards, but every one seems pretty well convinced at present that the order of events is precisely contrary ; for though it is true that in diseased fields a few scattered tubers, principally if not entirely such as chance to be superficial, may occasionally be found, or even a diseased tuber, on a plant whose leaves and stalks are apparently healthy,* yet these are quite exceptional cases, the general fact being that, at the time the foliage first becomes diseased, the tubers are healthy. The potato crops up to a certain time were very luxuriant, as testified indeed by the produce in spite of the premature decay of the organs on which of course the perfection of the crop de- pends. This was especially the case with the crops which were attacked in Canada in 1844, and Dr. Bellingham informs us that in Ireland there was " a luxuriance of the leaves, flowers, and stalks, which led most people to suppose that there would be an unusual yield." The luxuriance perhaps indicated the latent disease in accordance with the phenomena presented by corn affiscted by cereal fungi.t The leaves then began suddenly to assume a paler and at length a yellowish tint, exhibiting here and there discoloured spots, and, if I mistake not, were less copi- ously clothed than usual with pubescence on the under surface. More or less exactly coinciding with these spots on the reverse * Eevue Botanique, 1845, p. 150. t It is well known that the presence of the mycelium of fungi acts as a sti- mulant to the chlorophyl : witness the rich tint of fairy rings. A curi- ous instance has within a few days fallen under my notice. The hazel leaves a week or two back were very generally spotted with dark patches of green. On examination it was found that the reverse of such patches was covered with Erysiphe guttata, which had been living at the expense of the paler portions of the leaf, while in the superjacent patch the chlorophyl had become of a deeper green. ME. BEKKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 15 of the leaves appeared white mealy patches, consisting of a minute mould proceeding, either singly or in fascicles, from the stomata, and arising from an abundant branched mycelium creep- ing in every direction through the loose tissue beneath the cuticle. The upper surface rarely if ever exhibits the mould, it being almost physicall)^ impossible for its delicate threads to penetrate the closely packed cells which, being arranged side by side, leave scarcely any intercellular passages. The mould in a few hours from its first piercing the apertures of the stomata perfects its fruit, and in so doing completely exhausts its matrix, which in consequence withers. No sooner have a number of the leaves been attacked than the stem itself is subject to change, becoming spotted here and there with dark brown patches in which the cells are mostly filled with a dark grumous mass, without exhi- biting any mucedinous filaments, though occasionally, as in a por- tion figured, I have ascertained their presence. Very rarely fructifying but dwarfed specimens of the mould occur upon it. I have figured such, as sent to me from the neighbourhood of Bristol by Mr. Broome. The stem now rapidly putrifies, the cuticle and its subjacent tissue becoming pulpy, and separating when touched from the woody parts beneath. The whole soon dries up, and, in many instances, exhibits in the centre the black irregular fungoid masses which are known under the name of Sclerotium varium,* aiid which are believed by the most compe- tent authorities to be the mycelium of certain moulds in a high state of condensation. If the tubers are now examined, the greater part will often be found smaller than usual, especially if the disease has commenced at an early stage of growth, but in their natural condition, while here and there a tuber, particularly if it has chanced to be par- tially exposed, exhibits traces of disease. The surface is, however, soon marked with livid patches, commencing generally about the eyes, or at the point of connection with the fructifying shoots, according to Payen and Phillips ; these rapidly acquire a spotted appearance, the spots being rather waved, and assuming often a more or less concentric arrangement. Sometimes, especially on the smoother kinds of tuber, two or more regular systems of concentric spots are exhibited on the same tuber. The skin now withers, and is easily separated; the spots become depressed, and of a yellowish tinge ; and if the tubers be laid in a moist place, in a day or two — sometimes in the space of a few hours — * This has been the case very generally. I have received specimens from Mr. J. D. C. Sowerby, procured near London ; from Suffolk by Professor Henslow ; from Dumfrieshire by Sir W. Jardine ; and from Elgin by Mr. Robert Arthur, who communicated them to the London Horticultural Society. 16 MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. the same mould which destroyed the leaves springs from them, piercing the cuticle from within, yet not scattered, as on the leaves, but forming a conspicuous white tuft. If a section of the diseased tuber be made on the first symptoms of the disease, little brownish or rusty specks are found in the cellular tissue, con- fined, with very rare exceptions, to the space between the cuticle and the sac, if I may so call it, of spiral vessels and their accompanying tissue, which, springing from the subterranean branches, pass into the tuber, making their way to the several buds disposed on the surface. The disease, I believe, commences in the mother cells of the fecula, and not in the empty subcu- ticular cells, or in the cuticle itself, though the contrary has frequently been stated. These spots consist at first of a quantity of discoloured cells mixed more or less with others in a healthy condition. The walls are tinged with brown, and sprinkled both within and without with extremely minute inorganic granules, which Monsieur Decaisne* has found to resist the action even of concentrated boiling muriatic acid. The grains of fecula, which are themselves sometimes powdered with the brown bodies, are for a long time perfectly healthy, without any laceration of their walls or change of colour, and are never, as in tlie disease of Martins, rough witli incipient fungi. The cells themselves, so far from being looser, are more closely bound together than in the more healthy portions. In general, no traces of mycelium are visible in this stage, but I have found in the midst of the patches in some of the cells, usually in those less diseased, young plants of mould springing from the walls within, exactly as Martiusl has figured the incipient Fusarium in the disease which he has called Dry Rot. The processes on the cells, which Payen took for mycelium, exist not only on the diseased cells or on the sounder cells of the diseased tubers, but I have found them also in potatoes of 1844, and in tubers produced from them in the cellar ; and there appears to be something analogous on the mother cells of other plants, as in those of the tulip and Arum maculatum. Their resemblance, however, to mycelium, from their mode of growth, and occasionally somewhat dicho- tomous habit, is so strong that it is very difficult to divest oneself of the notion that they are really of a mucedinous character, especially when Payen's chemical analysis, corresponding so closely with that of fungi, is taken into consideration. J The rusty spots soon exhibit a darker tint, spreading in every di- * Revue Botanique, 1845, p. 161. t Martius, Die Kartoffel-Epidemie, Tab. 3, fig. 18, 21. X In the supposed fungous substance he found 9'75 per cent, of azote, while mushrooms from the bed contain 9-78. MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 17 rection, and becoming confluent ; they at length extend beyond the barrier of vascular tissue, and attack the central mass. The tuber, meanwhile, assumes a disagreeable smell, decomposes more or less rapidly, other fungi establish themselves on the surface, or in the decaying mass, which emits a highly foetid odour re- sembling that of decaying agarics, the union of the cells is dissolved, animalcules or mites malce their appearance, till at last the whole becomes a loathsome mass of putrescence. The eyes* are usually the last part destroyed, from the disease being peculiar to the cellular tissue, and not very readily spreading beyond it : and, in consequence, extremely decayed tubers will, •when planted, vegetate and produce healthy shoots, which sup- port themselves as tlie decay of ihe mother plant proceeds by their own roots.f Meanwhile, the traces of mycelium are some- times more evident, though often extremely obscure : but the walls of the cells, when divided, often take so tortuous a course, assume so many forms, and are so confused by the brown granules, that it is extremely difficult to distinguish any myce- lium from them, and no appearance can implicitly be trusted, except when the threads are seen to float freely on the edge of the portion examined ; and even where this has been satisfactorily ascertained in a portion of a slice taken immediately below one of the tufts of mould, it is very difficult to perceive it on another. Indeed, on examining the diseased spots on the smooth surface of a divided potato which had given rise to an abundant harvest of the Botrytis, though the mycelium was clear enougii at the edge of a thin slice, it was almost impossible to trace it farther, from tlie confusion caused by the various septa, either divided by the lancet, or seen through the superincumbent tissue. I have seen one case only in which the spots did not give rise in the first instance to the peculiar mould ; but this was in a specimen already highly diseased and partially putrescent. In an earlier stage of the disease the Botrytis is uniformly produced, and at the time of writing these notes (Nov. 22nd) I cannot find, in my potatoes which have been kept dry, any other species of mould except on portions injured by the fork, which exhibit some of the commoner species, and on parts which have been * The eyes of the decayed tubers often show a remarkable tendency to shoot. I believe this is the case principally in such specimens as have been exposed to light. f It remains to be seen what will be the ultimate condition of these plants. I do not apprehend that the decayed tuber beneath will injure the plants when they are once established ; but the shoots if not produced rapidly sometimes fail, partly, as it should seem, by immediate imbibition of diseased juices, partly from the contiguity of diseased matter. See ' Gardener's Chron.,' 1845, p. 768, c, for some observations bearing on this subject. VOL. I. C 18 ME. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MUEEAIX. bruised, on which there is a minute mucor. It is plain, that at a late period of the disease, when other fungi have been estab- lished, and on breaking the tuber mucedinous patches are visible within, all traces of the original parasite may easily be lost. But even in this state it should seem that there is some difficulty occasionally in tracing any mycelium amongst the cells, as Monsieur Desmazieres, a most practised microscopic observer, had not, even so late as the 17th of January — though the tubers he examined were eaten up with a Fusarium — been able to detect any mycelium. The order of phenomena described above is such as to show a very intimate connection between the parasite and the disease. Accordingly, the notion that the disease is the effect of the para- site has met with some advocates, especially in Belgium. Mon- sieur Payen also, to a greater or less extent, accords with Dr. Morren : and, after an attentive consideration of the progress of the disease and of almost everything of value that has been written on the subject, and after duly weighing the peculiar diffi- culties with which it is attended, I must candidly confess, that with a becoming share of philosophic doubt where such authori- ties are ranged upon tlie opposite side,* 1 believe the fungal theory to be the Irue one. I cannot claim the support here of my friend Dr. Montague, though he has been imagined by some of his colleagues to accord in opinion with Dr. Morren ; but in the very first conmiunication I had from him upon the subject he expressly stated his fioubts as to the true cause of tlie disease, though at the same time he admitted its intimate connection with parasitic fungi. To avoid going twice over the same ground, it will be con- venient to consider first the other opinions which have been brought forward. The principal advocates of the opinion that the disease is in the first instance independent of parasitic fungi, and that it arises from the peculiar atmospheric conditions of the season, are the members of the Brussels and Groningen Commissions ; Dr. George, Dr. Vallez, and De Potter, in Belgium; Bouchardat, * Monsieur Dueliartre, in the 'Revue Botanique,' 1845, p. 177, states that I have modified the uotious which I at first entertained of the Botrytis being the cause of the disease, founding this assertion on my correspondence with Dr. Montague. There is certainly some mistake in this. I may have ex- pressed myself as open to conviction, and acknowledged, as I still do, the difficulties of the case ; but at present I have certainly seen no reason to depart from the opinion I formed from the moment I had an opportunity of examining the matter for myself. My first communication to the ' Gar- dener's Chronicle' was made before I had an opportunity of seeing the disease in situ. MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 19 Decaisne, Desmazieres, Duchartre, Morren of Rennes ; Phi- lippar and Pouchet in France ; Drs. Kiitzing- and Munter, in Germany ; and in the Britisli dominions, Drs. Kane, Playfair, and Lindley, Dr. Bellingham, Mr. W. Andrews, and Mr. G. Phillips. The matter is diffigrently expressed by different parties : some speaking principally of excessive moisture ; others of alternations of heat and moisture ; otliers of the pecu- liar electric phenomena ; and all, more or less, of the surcharge of tlie cellular tiss\ie with moisture. It will not be necessary to examine the views of each separately, because they all tend essen- tially to the same point. Those of M. Decaisne, unfortunately, have at present only been partially stated. I regret much that liis memoir Avill not appear until these observations are in the printer's hands. Dr. Lindley stated the matter very clearly in the ' Gardener's Chronicle ' for August 23, in a passage whicli I proceed to copy. It is to be remembered that it was written at an eariy stage of the inquiry, but his views have suffered scarcely any alteration, notwithstanding the great attention he has since given to the subject. " The cause of this calamity is, we think, clearly traceable to the season. During all the first weeks of August the tempera- ture has been cold, from two to three degrees below the average — we have had incessant rain and no sunshine. " The potato absorbs a very large quantity of water. Its whole construction is framed with a view to its doing so ; and its broad succulent leaves are provided in order to enable it to part with its water. But a low temperature is unfavourable to the motion of the fluids or to the action of the cells of the plant ; and, moreover, sunlight is required in order to enable the water sent into the leaves to be perspired. In feeble light the amount of perspiration from a plant is comparatively small ; in bright sunshine it is copious : in fact the amount of perspiration is in exact proportion to the quantity of light tliat falls upon the leaf. At night or in darkness there is no appreciable action of this kind. During the present season all this important class of functions has been deranged. The potatoes have been compelled to absorb an unusual quantity of water ; the lowness of tempera- ture has prevented their digesting it, and the absence of sunlight has rendered it impossible for them to get rid of it by perspira- tion. Under these circumstances it necessarily stagnated in the interior ; and the inevitable result was rot, for a reason to be presently explained. If the first days of July had not been sud- denly hot, it would not have happened ; and perhaps it would not have occurred had the temperature been high instead of low, even although the sun did not shine and rain fell incessantly. c 2 20 MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. It is the combination of untoward circumstances that has done the mischief." " It may be urged perhaps, in opposition to this explanation, that potatoes thrive very well in districts whose summers are usu- ally as unfavourable as this has been ; as for example the cold parts of Scotland. And that is doubtless true. But in those climates the potato grows slowly, its tissue becomes thoroughly organ- ized as it proceeds, and it is not liable to be acted upon by ac- cumulated moisture. There no predisposing cause exists. But in England the potato was predisposed to take the disease which is destroying it by the unusual warmth of the beginning of July suddenly succeeding a period of cold, ungenial weather ; at that time the temperature of the soil near London was between 60° and 68° ; the potatoes grew excessively fast, their tissue was soft and unconsolidated, filled with azotized matter, as all such tissue always is, and peculiarly liable to run into a state of rottenness." The most complete statement after this is in a pamphlet by Dr. Vallez and De Potter. I have not been able to procure the original pamphlet, but, by the kindness of Messrs. Desmazieres and Decaisne, I have received extracts from the ' Moniteur Beige ' of the 29th of August, and the Belgian ' Precurseur ' of the 16th of September, 1845, which contain, evidently, the most important portions of the pamphlet. It will be well to give an abstract, as the matter is stated somewhat differently by these authors. The earth at the commencement of June, they say, in con- sequence of its dryness and the extreme heat with which it was inundated, its low conducting powers and its negative state of electricity, was necessarily a bad reservoir or general recipient of the fluids just mentioned. The air, from want of rain, was also a bad conductor, and was, in consequence, surcharged with electricity ; but great storms suddenly took place : whilst the air got rid of its excess of elec- tricity, and became, from its humidity, a better conductor, the soil, from being a recipient of the moisture, was in a different condition. It constituted a superficial sponge, in which all the electricity contained in the air was absorbed, producing in it a more violent action, and exciting a sudden and great in- crea^^e of heat. In consequence of this condition, the tubers became suddenly gorged with moisture, and the prey of putre- faction. In whatever terms, in fact, from differences of climate or of personal views, the matter may be stated, the exciting cause of the decay is by all considered excess of moisture combined more or less with heat, or electric agency. In addition to the ME. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MTIKEAIN. 21 causes mentioned by Dr. Lindley as producing the putrefaction of the stems, even if it be not considered as tlie immediate cause, tiie Botrytis wouhl be concurrent in preventing the perspiration of the excess of moisture. For not only does the mycelium block up in great measure the loose tissue which gives a passage to the fluid, but more or less completely the stomata also by which the vapour passes. As regards electric phenomena, though they are known to have a most important influence on the production of fungi, it is far from clear that they have much effect on phsenogamous plants. The experiments lately made on the influence of elec- tricity on vegetation seem to show that it is very small. Besides the objection stated by Dr. Lindley as capable of being brought forward against his views, it may be urged that the fact of the disease not being peculiar to the year 1845, but having been excessively destructive in 1844, and more or less so in preceding years, greatly militates against the notion of its being due to the peculiar season. For it cannot be asserted that there was much similarity between 1844 and 1845. And, taking the experience merely of 1845, and the various times at which the disease made its appearance in different parts of the country, the same conditions did not exist in all cases. In many districts it made its appearance during tlie very dry weather at the end of August and beginning of September. Besides, it does not appear that differences of soil have had much weight in the progress of the disease. In many districts it has been found that the pota- toes in the driest soils have been affected most. In the fens* of Cambridgeshire it has been observed generally that those spots in which the water was not perfectly drained, suffered much the least, and similar accounts have been received from other quarters. I think, too, it may be doubted whether the season, though extremely cold and ungenial, has really been more wet than usual. f Dr. Bell Salter, in a late number of the ' Gardener's Chronicle,' writes as follows from the Isle of Wight : — " In this * It perhaps may be objected here that the water being impregnated with peat, acted as a preservative. The experience, however, of various districts shows that the peculiar nature of the soil had, in general, little influence on the disease. No districts suffered more than the dry parts of the fens. t It appears from observations made at Chiswick, as reported in the ' Annals of Natural History,' that the quantity of rain from May to Septem- ber inclusive was below the average of the last eight years : the average quantity of raiu during those months being 11-20 inches; while during the same period in 1845 it was IT 12. Neither was the rain in any one month greatly above the average. May. June. July. August. September. Average of Eight Years 2-02 2-26 2-10 2-2G 2-52 1845 . . . 2-89 1-36 2-31 2-79 1-77 22 ME. BEEKELEY OX THE POTATO MUEEAIX. place, where the disease appeared so early, and where indeed it has been so severe, it does not appear to depend on free moisture to the extent wiiich is your opinion of tlie matter. In the dis- tricts of the porous greensand formation, which have generally yielded our best crops, they have this year suffered the most ; while in the cold, wet districts of tlie London clay, and beds of plastic clay, and upper fresh-water formations, the crops have been mucii less attacked. In one instance, in a clay soil, and where the air had not been admitted by hoeing up, the po- tatoes were almost unattacked. From all I can collect in this district, exclusion of air appears to have been the greatest pre- servative, either by depth of planting or even by agency of free moisture on the surface. Though there has been so little dura- tion, at any time during the summer, of weather free from rain, yet the actual quantity of water which has fallen has been much less than usual. Our springs have been very low, and during the harvest period, when fortunately there was a short continu- ance of dry weather, the effects of drought were most speedily visible." It may be doubted, too, whether the water of vegetation has always existed in the tubers in a greater proportion than usual. The quantity of water in potatoes is stated by Boussingault as rang- ing from 75"9 to 79*4 per cent. ; according to Payen it is some- what lower. My own observations do not show any excess of moisture in potatoes taken from tlie ground in the month of Oc- tober, the crop being in an extremely diseased state. They exhibited 74 per cent., the central substance of the tubers giving 73*5. Potatoes, from a cellar at the same time, in good con- dition, gave 77*1. Mr. G. Phillips found on the 2nd of Oc- tober 75-7 in a sound potato taken from the ground. In another variety he found 78'0, and in a diseased white potato 79.* The potatoes, after they become diseased, probably when placed in a moist situation, imliibe a certain quantity of moisture. Did the disease really arise from the water of vegetation exist- ing in too great abundance, and lience inducing putrefaction of the cellular substance, it woidd be difficult to say why it has not existed to a considerable extent before. This spotted form of decay is certainly not familiar to the cultivator, however long it may have existed, though other forms are. I think then it is at least plain that no supposed peculiarities of season are sufficient without some more specific cause to ac- count for the general prevalence of this disease. * Monsieur Stas however asserts that all the potatoes of this year contain less water and starch and more coagulable albumen than usual. He states the water at 82-2. fComptes Rendu?, 184.5, p. €91.) MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 23 Some have attempted to account for it by the notion that in consequence of long culture, and from the practice of raising plants from cutting?, not from seed, the species is exhausted and incapable of producing healthy offspring. But this depends upon mere tlieory, it being more than doubtful whether any species or variety does really become exhausted by long culture or by tlie practice of using cuttings, however popular the notion may be ; and were the notion well grounded, whether its degeneracy would produce, and tliat so suddenly and universally, the effects attributed to it ; and the fact that the newest seedling varieties have suffered* quite as much as the old ones at once overthrows this theory. Others again have attributed it to over-manuring and the use of guano. But tliis is contradicted by the fact that all soils were subject to the disease, however poor or rich, and whatever the nature of the manure might be with which the land had been prepared. It has also been conceived that the disease is a sort of epidemic analogous to cholera, arising from some pestilent emanation or specific poison in the atmosphere affecting the health of the plant. Others again affirm that it is due to microscopic insects wafted by the air. M. Gruby goes beyond the rest, and sees three causes at work at the same time — a parasitic insect, a specific disease, and a parasitic fungus. The^e conjectures however, it is obvious, are not supported by facts, and cannot be adopted provided other more tangible causes can be assigned with any degree of probability. We come now to the theory which has been so much can- vassed, and which is now peculiar almost to Dr. Morren, unless M. Payen is to be reckoned also as its advocate. Of this opi- nion, notwithstanding the opposition, and in some instances the ridicule almost, with which it has been assailed, I must, as said above, profess myself at present. I do not mean to say that there are no difficulties in the case, or that weighty objections may not be raised, but I tliink that these difficulties have been exaggerated, Avhile in other instances the exact question has not been understood. It is agreed that the disease commences in the leaves ; and in those instances where the mould has not been observed, it is probable that the decayed foliage was examined too late. In a few hours the fungus has run its course, and in a week or so the greater portion of a field is laid \\aste so as to make it difficult to get specimens for examination. The decay is the consequence of the presence of the mould, and not the mould of the decay. It is not the habit of the allied species to prey on decayed or decaying * See especially Gard. Chron. 1845, p. 768, where this part of the subject is admirably discussed. 24 ME. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. matter, but to produce decay— a fact which is of the first import- ance. Though so many other species have this habit, these have not. The. plant then becomes unhealthy in consequence of the presence of the mould, which feeds upon its juices and prevents the elaboration of nutritive sap in the leaves, while it obstructs the admission of air and the emission of perspiration. The stem is thus overcharged with moisture and eventually rots, while every source of nutriment is cut off from the half-ripe tubers. It would be as reasonable to say, with our knowledge of the nature and habits of the cereal fungi, that bunt, or mildew, or the other allied diseases which affect corn, are the consequence and not the causes of disease. In favourable seasons they are not developed ; in unfavourable seasons they spread like wildfire : in one sense, therefore, the atmospheric conditions are the cause, but merely as they stimulate into action the latent pest. The immediate cause of disease is the fungus which preys upon the tissues of the corn. So exactly, in the present instance, as far at least as the aerial portions of the plant are concerned, the Bo- trytis is the immediate cause of destruction. In some instances it may have been aided by unseasonable frost, but this has cer- tainly not always been the case. The mould indeed would not have spreafl but from peculiar atmospheric conditions favourable to its growth. What these are it may be impossible to say, but it is a fact well known to every student of the extensive tribe of Fungi, that their growth, and especially their numbers, depend more than all other vegetables on atmospherical conditions, or what Fries has happily called " cosmica momenta." Even the peasant knows this to be the case with mushrooms. Dry and wet summers occur, and both are equally barren ; while in other seasons, apparently but little dissimilar, they occur in the utmost profusion. A species will be most abundant for a year or two, and then for a period vanish entirely. It is notorious that this is the case in other parts of the creation, especially amongst insects, peculiar species of which sometimes swarm to such an extent as to baffle the naturalist. In the summer of 1826, for instance, Vanessa cardui existed in the greatest profusion in Eng- land, and it was traced by Mr. A. Way from England to Nice. The species of late years has been comparatively rare. There is nothing surprising then in the fact of the immense prevalence of a parasitic mould. No one wonders when the hop-grounds are ravaged by their peculiar mildew, because the cultivation of hops is so limited ; but if it were as universal and of as much import- ance as potatoes, the ravages would equally excite attention. It is by these instruments, contemptible in the sight of man, that the Almighty is pleased sometimes to accomplish his ends. In- stances, like that of the Hessian fly, will readily occur of the immense disproportion between the means and the end. MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 25 The peculiar habit of the species, as said above, contradicts the notion of its appearance being the consequence of decay. I have in vain tried to make the spores vegetate, as is so easily- done with other species. The spores of Botrytis Bassiana, which destroys the silkworms, and certainly is not the consequence, but the cause of decay, because the disease is readily communicated to the most healthy caterpillars even of other species, vegetate readily* upon various substances. 1 do not assert that others may not have better success ; but at present, in whatever way I have tried them, I have not been able to get a single spore to sprout, much less to propagate them upon foreign bodies. I do not know of any single instance in which any of the nearly allied species have been found in any other situation than growing from the tissues of plants ; were this ever the case, they could not have been overlooked, as their spores are so much larger than those of other species of the genus. Botrytis cana is the only species which approaches them in this respect, but it is dis- tinguished at once by its cinereous flocci and its evident relation- ship to B, vulgaris. The species are in fact as peculiar to the living tissues of plants as are the several species of Puccinia and Uredo, which could not exist, or at any rate be perfected, else- where. The mycelium of the cereal fungi is known to exist from the earliest period in corn, and is perfected only under favourable circumstances ; and there is every reason to believe that the case is the same with these essential parasites, which certainly do not thrive on putrescent matter, but cause the decay of the matter on ■which they thrive. The direct observations of Bauer, Corda, and Leveille, prove merely what a thousand facts indicate, unless, indeed, we have recourse to the notions entertained by many of spontaneous or equivocal generation from languid or diseased tissues ; for the question at last reduces itself to this, which is indeed one involved in mystery, but which, as far as I can judge, wherever the veil is partially lifted up, seems after all to point to the same general laws by which the higher portions of the creation are governed. To my own apprehension, then, it appears clear at least that the cause of the premature decay and putrefaction of the haulm is to be found in the parasitic fungus, in consequence of whose attacks the tubers are unripe, and in a bad condition for preservation. f Under these circumstances, if decay takes place, there cannot be much matter of surprise ; and tliat, as in all cases of decay, * See Ann. des Sci. Nat., vol. 8, p. 257 ; vol. 9, p. 1, &c. Dr. Montagne has made the spores sprout between two plates of glass. f Some persons were inclined to attribute the premature decay, as said above, to frost ; but, as the Abbe Michot remarks, " Balsams, dahlias, and other plants susceptible of cold did not suffer."— Rev. Bot., 1845, p 156. 26 MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MTJRKAIN. various species of fungi should establish themselves upon the tubers and accelerate it. It is well known, without having re- course to the curious observations of Dr. Nageli,* tliat various funoi do exist in the tissues of plants, accelerating their decom- position. A very singular species will be described at the end of this memoir. Facts of this kind, wliether we observe them or not, are daily before our eyes, and there would be little diffi- culty in admitting that the decay of the tubers was produced by natural decomposition arising from their imperfect organization, the tubers being unliealthy from various outward circumstances and from the premature decay of the haulm, but for the curious fact that the same mould which s[)rings from the substance of the leaves, uniformly bursts forth from tlie tubers exactly at the very spots where the decay originates. That the mould proceeds from within I can assert from personal observation, and believe it to be a fact that it could not establish itself on a decayed sub- stance ; nor, indeed, have my experiments been successful as regards sound tubers. Portions of the mould transferred to healthy tubers placed in favourable situations for its growtli have remained precisely in the same condition, without establishing themselves in their new situation, and inoculation has not at present been attended with any positive result. It should seem certain, then, that the mycelium or elements of the fung-us must have pre-existed in the tuber ; and as it uniformly springs from the decayed spots, that it has itself caused the decay. But here a difficulty arises from the great obscurity, or as some say, the total absence of mycelium in an early stage of the disease. I have satisfied myself however of its existence in some cases, but not uniformly. Another difficulty arises from the fact that diseased tul^ers are found occasionally on plants whose foliage is untouched,! or only slightly affected by the mould. The disease in tliis case at least does not arise from tlie dete- rioration of the tuber from tlie decay of the foliage. But if, previous to the breaking out of tlie mould from the leaf, the cellular tissue is impregnated with mycelium, a fact which I have had no opportunity of ascertaining since my observations were commenced, it is possible enough that it may be present in the tubers which are leafless branches, and if so, it may exercise its influence on the tuber before it bursts forth from the leaf. And if these observations be well grounded, the case is merely an exceptional one. In those cases in which I have myself found diseased tubers while the foliage was still more or less * Linnsea, vol. 16, p. 237. t Decaisne, Rev. Bot., 1845, p. 150. ME. BEEKELEY ON THE POTATO MUEEAIN. It perfect, they have always been superficial and partially greened by exposure to light. The disease, however, is in general subsequent to the decay of the haulm. Now, even granting that no visible mj'celium is present in the decayed spots when first exhibited, I cannot grant, taking the ascertained facts into account, that they are inde- pendent of the fungi. For without having recourse to the notion of the juices of the plant in general being vitiated by the fungi on the leaves which, indeed, is not consistent with the case just men- tioned as brought forward by Decaisne, and if it were, leads at once to the question of the production of the fungus from diseased mat- ter without pre-existent germs, it seems to me most certain, from observation of those fungi which grow from the tissues of plants, that minute particles, too small to be distinguished by the highest powers of the microscope, must be carried about with the juices, and when fitting circumstances concur, proceed to act upon the tissue with which they are in contact.* That under certain circumstances foreign particles should produce disturb- ance of the system is not more surprising than that a moment's breathing an infected atmosphere or the least particle of virus taken up by the absorbents in the human frame should produce such extensive mischief, while in other cases constant exposure to the malaria and more thorough inoculation prove absolutely harmless. That the mould in the tubers should commence by producing decay, contrary to its presumed habits in the foliage, is not so curious as that under such anomalous circumstances the mould should be produced at all. I can see, on mature reflection and consideration of all the diflficvdties of the case as far as they occur to me, nothing at all absurd in Dr. Morren's views, in which if there be difficulties not solvable at present, there are at least as great difficulties on the other side. A somewhat analogous decay is now attacking Swedish tur- nips, commencing in little sinuous lines, which follow the course of the scalariform vessels, around which dark granules are de- posited somewhat after the fashion of those in the potato cells. It is curious that in extensive fields the foliage is to a very great extent destroyed by Botrytis parasitica, a nearly allied species. * It is well known that bunt is communicable by rubbing sound grain with the spores of the fungus. It does not seem to have been ascertained at present how the spores act : whether they vegetate on the surface, and send their mycelium into the tissue of the young plant, or whether the contents of the spores are imbibed. The usual mode of gei-mination in fungi is a pro- trusion of the membrane of the spore ; but it is very pi'obaljle tliat the minute contents of the spore or its protruded shoot, when absorbed and circulating with tlie juices, would produce the perfect fungus under favourable circum- stances. The spores themselves could not enter the stomata. 28 MR. BERKELEY OX THE POTATO MUKEAIN. The fact that the earliest potatoes, which had cold and wet weather enough to contend against, were not attacked, is much in favour of the fungal theory, the foliage never having suffered. The second crops suffered perhaps nearly as much as the later — in some cases more so. The circumstance of the concentric arrangement of the spots in certain cases appears to me of great importance, as indicating their origin from a fungus. I regret much having searched in vain for fresh specimens of Oidium fructigenum, the species on which Ehrenberg made his observations on the growth of fungi, with a view to ascertain the condition of the mycelium. As the texture of the matrix, however, is so loose, it would be probable that it would be freely developed, as is the case with that which is so abundant in the ordinary decayed spots of pears and apples. The reports are so contradictory as regards the subject of con- tagion, that it is impossible to build anything upon them.* Some deny the fact altogether, while others say that a single diseased tuber is sufficient to infect a thousand. When it is considered that apparently sound tubers will, even tliough exposed to light and kept dry, in a few days exhibit the disease, and that in a moist place the change takes place more certainly, be the selection as careful as it may, it appears clear that no experiment of sprinkling them with the water in which diseased individuals have been boiled, or confining them within the same atmosphere, or even of placing apparently sound individuals in contact with unsound, can be conclusive. I have seen no evidences of con- tagion in the experiments I have myself instituted. Were a single fungus only produced upon the tubers, viz., that which grows upon the leaves, there would be less difficulty, I believe, in admitting tiie agency of the Botrytis. The difficulty is, I think, however, overrated : when it is considered how exten- sively — nay, universally — moulds are produced in decaying mat- ter, and how many species occur upon one putrescent mass, it will not seem so wonderful that when the Botrytis has superinduced decay, other species should follow in its wake. If the peculiar spots, in the first instance, were found on extensive trial to pro- duce indifferently a variety of species, the case would be different ; but if, as I believe, the Botrytis always precedes when the trial is sufficiently early, the conclusion is evident. Before closing- this part of my subject it may be well to men- tion an observation which I made during the course of my in- vestigation. On examining the cnticular cells of a young tuber, •with a view to ascertain the changes which occur in the process Payen thiuks it not contagious : Morren, on the contrary, contagious. Mil. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. 29 of greening, I found evident traces of mycelium within them. Little attention was paid to the circumstance at the time, though I made a sketcli of the appearance, whicli will be found amongst the figures. The potato was then exposed to the light and sun in the window of my study, the weather being dry, when, to my great surprise, in a few days it exhibited the spots peculiar to the disease, and was, in a few days more, completely decayed. lam not at all certain that the mycelium was connected with the spots, but the circumstance seems worth recording. The disease, if it be due to any specific cause, which I think is clear, however obscure that cause may be, can scarcely be ex- pected, after having had so extensive a range, to subside all at once. The same atmospheric conditions which have favoured its progress are not likely to occur again ; but still I fear that it will be felt directly or indirectly for some time, as in the human frame the general prevalence of a particular disease modifies other diseases for many successive seasons. Such, I am assured by one of the most intelligent practitioners in England, and than whom no one has paid more attention to the particular dis- ease or been more successful in its treatment, has been the effect of cholera in a large town where it was extremely prevalent. Dis- eases appear under a new type and require a different treatment. A diseased stock can scarcely be expected to produce a perfectly healthy offspring. On the supposition that it springs from some contagious matter, we can form no probable conjecture, except by mere analogy ; but if it arises from a parasitic fungus, it may be hoped from our experience of other productions belonging to the same tribe, tliat succeeding conditions of the atmosphere may be more or less un- favourable to its development, for it is most certain tliat the germs of cryptogamic plants may be present in tissues and yet remain more or less inert, unless peculiar circumstances should concur — exactly as the seeds of phaenogamous plants may lie dormant in the earth for centuries. The Irish Commissioners have wisely taken a wide view of the subject in their reports, and in a case of such difficulty it is seldom safe to trust entirely to one's own particular views. The safest and tiie best plan on every account is to keep our minds in a condition to meet the subject, should it unhappily obtrude itself again upon the attention of the public, without prejudice, and we shall then have some prospect of discovering the proper remedies. I come now to the more purely botanical part of the question, namely, the description of the parasite which has been so con- stant an attendant on the disease. And here, as if no part of the matter were to be free from debate, a little difficulty presents 30 MR. BEPvKELEY ON THE POTATO MUERAIX. itself in the outset as regards the name. The mould has been severally named by Monsieur Desmazieres, Dr. Montague, and Mile. Libert. There is no question, I think, as regards the first ; but Dr. Morren, in a paper published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Gand,* claims the priority for Mile. Libert. Unfortunately lie does not state in what work that excellent my- cologist had characterised the species previously to the public notice made by Dr. Montague before the Societe Philomathique of Paris, on the 30tht of August. The very reason which in- duced iiim so to do, was that in Dr. Morren 's Memoir, in the Belgian Independance of the 18th of August, no specific name was assigned. It appears indeed from 3L Duchartre's Memoir,t that IVlile. Libert was the first to publish the opinion of Dr. Van Oye, in L'Organe de Flandres ; but whether the species is there characterised or not I am unable to say. But even sup- posing such to be the case, it can scarcely be deemed a publication within the meaning of the botanical canons, which demand some medium of publication generally accessible, which a political journal not likely to be preserved in public libraries can scarcely be accounted. I feel therefore upon the whole bound to adopt the name assigned by the great French cryptogamist. The fol- lowing characters were transmitted to me by him, togetlier with copious sketches of this and other species which I liave availed myself of in the figures. It was his intention to have published them himself, but at my request he gave up the intention, placing his materials in my hands — a mark of kindness and liberality which demands public thanks, though only one amongst a multitude of similar instances. The species is characterised as follows : — Botrj'tis infistfi/is, Mont, coespitibus laxis erectis albis apice plus minus ramosis ; ramis passim nodosis erecto-patentibus, sporis lateralibus terminalibusque solitariis ovoideo-eUip- ticis proratione ma^rnis concoloribus subapiculatis, nucleo granuloso. Mont. L'Institut, l«4.j, p. 3ia.— Botrytis lallax, Uesra. MS.-!. — Botrytis devastatrix, Lib. — Morren, in Ann. delaSoc. de I'Ag. , &c., de Gand, IK4o, p. 287, cum Icone. Hab, in patina inferiori foliorum Solani tuberosi necnon in tuberculis ipsis ag^jeratis. Mapul.-E alb;e farinosne parum densae aut conCertii! in parte Iblii inferiori observantur. Flocci steriles inter meatus intercellulares repentes, fertiles, qui e stomatibus emittuntur, inter pilos folii sparsi erecti subtus simplices i lineam in tuberculis attingentes superantesque, saepius vero praesertim ad folia 2 lineam raetientes, apice ramosi septati albi. Kami 2 ad C erecto-patentes acuti virgati passim elliptico-subincrassati liinc nodosi. Sporae pro ratione planbe maximae primo globulosae ovoide.'E tandem ellipticae et turn serainibus Feponis non ab- similes, altero fine ad 3i«;ciem mammillatae subapiculaUe, altero vero brevissime pedicellatae, pellucidae floccis concolores, nempe niveae, intus sporulis endosporio inclusis farctoe. Long, spor. .jji_milUm., crassit. ,2 millim. * Ann. de la Soc. Roy. d' Agriculture et de Botanique de Gand, 1844, p. 290. f Dr. Montague had several days previously communicated it to me with a complete analysis, under the same name. X Rev. Bot. 1845, p. 1.51. -Mil. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURKAIN. 31 The peculiar characters of the species consist in the few erecto-patent not forcipated or uncinated branches, the scat- tered spores, and above all the torulose swellings which give if somewhat the appearance of Gonatobotrys. The spores however are not disposed round the knots as in that genus and Arthro- botrys, or even confined to them. The only species wliich ex- hibits anything of the kind is one which has been named Botry- tis Urticse by Mile. Libert, and which indeed M. Desmazieres considered as identical. It appears to me however that it is quite distinct, the flocci being far more divided, the apices bifid, and the colour, instead of white, a greyisii lilac. I have had the opportunity, fortunately, of comparing specimens, which occurred in the autumn, at Tansor, in Korthamptonshire, with authentic individuals from M. Desmazieres. Various allied species occur in similar habitats characterised by their large spores. These, though closely allied to each other, difler in their mode of ramification and in the form and size of their spores. The best known of these is Botrytis parasitica, which occurs on Cruciferas. Of this, as occurring on the leaves of cabbages and Swedish turnips, I add a figure, as also brief characters and figures of four undescribed species, for the sake of comparison with Botrytis infestans. Botrytis ArennricF n. s. nivea ; floccis fertilibus sparsis superne dicliotomis, apicibus divari- cato-furcatis non uncinatis ; sporis ovatis terminalibus. Hab. in pagina int'eriori ibliorum Arenariae trinervis. June, King's Cliffe. Botrj'tis Vicifp, n. s. nivea ; floccis fertilibus elongatis sparsis paree ramosis ; ramulis bifidis non uncinatis ; sporis obovatis apiculatis terminalibus. Hab. in pagina inferiori foliorura Vicia; sativaD. June, King's Cliffe. A distinct species, forming detinite purplish patches, occurs on Peas. Botrjtis arborescens, n. s. nivea ; floccis fertilibus superne ramosissirais di-trichotomis ; apicibus subforcipatis ; sporis terminalibus minoribus subglobosis. Hab. in pagina inferiori Papaveris Rhrras, quod omnino destruit. June, King's Cliffe. The plants are attacked when quite young, and have a peculiar aspect by which they may be known at a distance. Botrytis gin^lioniformis, n. s. nivea ; soris definitis ; floccis fertilibus superne ramosis, ramulis curvatis sub apicibus dilatatis ganglioniformibus ; sporis minoribus terminalibus sub- glol)osis. B. parasitica var. Lactucje, Berk Brit. Fung., No. 3S1. Hab. in pagina inferiore Lactucarum in hortis. May, King's Cliffe. Many other undescribed species occur, related to Bot. eflfusa, Grev., but differing in various characters. All exercise a greater or less influence on the health of the plant attacked. Dr. Mor- ren informs us that beet-root has suffered from a species during the present autumn, and also pear-trees. Ko good figure has yet appeared of Botrytis Bassiana, whicli attacks silkworms : I have therefore availed myself of a sketch kindly communicated by Dr. Montague. It will be seen that it is extremely like Botrytis diffusa, Alb. and Schwein ; but tliis is, I believe, more in appearance than reality, for perfect speci- mens of that species exhibit a very complicated structure, each head consisting of numerous lobes, each of which bears a num- 32 MR. BERKELEY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. ber of spores attached to little spicules — a structure quite different from that of Botrytis. I have also figured the little mould alluded to above as once occurring on a tuber which had long been diseased instead of Botrytis infestans. It has all the characters of Dactylium, in consequence of which I had named it in my lierbarium Dactylium tenuissi- mum : I have, however, since the figure was sent to the engraver, seen young plants of Fusarium Solani Tuberosi, Desm., which resemble it so closely that I am inclined to think it merely a more persistent state than usual of that species. P«^ Fig. A. Botrytis Bassiana, from a sketch by Dr. Montagne. a. Young threads I. Tliread more advanced, with young spores, c. Ditto full grown, with mature spores. MR. BERKELKY OX THE rOTATO MURRAIN. 33 Amongst the diseases noticed by Martins is one which he considers as depending on a species of Protomyces. As I have seen this in various stages of growth and attached to its flocci, I have thought it worth figuring. It appears to me to belong- to the genus Tuburcinia, Fr. The spores have usually one or more cavities in the surflice communicating with the interior cavity. They may perhaps therefore be considered rather as com- pound bodies consisting of a quantit)^ of cells arranged in the form of a hollow ball. This view of their structure requires more attention than I am able to give to it at present. I sliall end the memoir by giving the characters, after Dr. Montague, of a highly curious fungus discovered by Dr. Kayer, chief Physician of the Hopital de la Charite, at Paris, during the course of a series of observations on potatoes. It is pro- duced and fructifies in the intercellular passages of germinatinj,- potatoes. ARTOTROGUS, Mont. Flocci continui ramosi llexuosi per meatus interceUulares vagantes serpentesque. Sporas terrainales vel (ob prolilicationem .-') medio filo insert;c, primo l;cves, splurriccf, rufse, intus farct^>, tandem solutae, libera;, echinulafce. Locus in systemate inter Sepedonium et Tubur- ciniam prope Asterophoram. Artotrogus hydnosporus, Mont. — Gard. Cbron., 1845, p. G40. Hab. inter meatus cellulares tuberculi Solani tuberosi, germinatione absoluta. Kinr/s Cliff e, Nov. 22, 1845. Fig. 1. Potato in an eai-ly stage of the disease. 2. Section of one in which the disease is more advanced. 3. Small ash-leaved potato, sliowing a concentric arrangement of the spots. In larger tubers there are sometimes two systems of con- centric spots. 4. Vertical section of a small red potato, in which the portion to the left has become green externally ; showing the external cells and a few of the internal feculiferous cells (a), some of which at {h) are attacked by the disease, and, in consequence, have their walls clouded with brown specks. The cells immediately beneath the cuticle do not contain fecula, though they sometimes seem to do so under the microscope from stray granules having been introduced -accidentally. Four of the lower cells exhibit Botrytis infestans just commencing. The grains of fecula in the diseased cells are, in this stage of the disease, not diminished in number, but some have escaped in consequence of the division of the cells. In the external cells the cytoblasts are visible at (IR. SOLLY ON THE POTATO MUIUIAIN. 41 Azotised matter in tliat condition necessary to its acting as a ferment, may exist in plants from two causes ; the partial decom- position of gluten and albumen already formed, or t'ne imperfect and incomplete formation of these substances : either of these causers miglit account for the effects under consideration, and it is by no means a simple problem to determine to which of these two it is really due. The fact that no epidemic of this kind has been observed for many years, shows that the cause must be complicated, depending upon a combination of several condi- tions, which do not frequently occur together. In the present season, and at a time when the plants were in full growth and vigour, there happened several very remarkable alterations of weather, and from hot and dry there was a rapid transition to cold and damp ; evaporation being checked in a sudden and un- usual manner. At the same time that evaporation was thus diminished whilst growth continued, the influence of light was also to a great extent impeded ; a continuance of cloudy weather ensuing, the effect of which was very materially to reduce t!ie whole quantity of sunshine during that period. Amongst the causes wliich may possibly have contributed to cause an un- healthy state of growth in plants, light certainly is not the least important ; and it must be remembered that besides being defi- cient in absolute quality, it may also have been deficient in che- mical power. It is much to be regretted that we have as yet no record of the diurnal amount of chemical rays which reach the earth, and consequently have no means of judging of the amount of influence which may be due to this cause, I have endeavoured, though in vain, to ascertain whether any peculiar deficiency in chemical power has been observed by those who were experimenting with light during the past summer. The potato rot manifested itself in two distinct forms this year, — the one a true putrid fermentation or wet rot, in which the whole tuber soon became converted into a brown shiny foetid mass ; the other a less rapid decay, in which the tuber slowly became converted into a brown spongy matter. The presence of water and putrefying azotised matter, and a moderate or ele- vated temperature, were requisite for the former; whilst the lat- ter, which more resembled erem.acausis, prevailed, when less water and little or no putrid azotised matter existed in the tubers. Botli forms of disease are however arrested by cold and dryness, decay ceasing to spread, and the diseased pai'ts shrivelling up, a kind of false skin in some cases forming between the sound and the decayed part, which effectually prevents further decay. A few isolated cases of diseased tubers, formed in houses, under peculiar circumstances, from tubers of last year, have been observed. Two cases of this kind have been mentioned to 42 MR. SOLLY ON THE POTATO MURRAIN. me, as observed by Lord Plill and Sir J. Lubbock. In both of these, potatoes of 1844, under cover, had sprouted and formed young tubers, which, tliough never exposed to the air or wea- ther, were found affected by the rot. I believe, however, that in these two cases, the disease was not the true rot, but a modi- fication of the dry rot, which has been long known as sometimes occurring in potatoes. In conclusion, I believe the potato disease was caused by a peculiar combination of atmo.spheric conditions, which, by sud- denly checking the rapid growth of the plants, led to the presence of partly decomposed azotised matter in the lower part of the stem ; this matter being carried through the structure of the plant at a period when there was little light, and consequently when the formation of organic matter was j)roceeding but slowly, communicated its own state by a process of fermentation, to va- rious parts of the plant, and thus originated the evil ; tlie increase of which was assisted by the abundance of moisture and the de- ficiency of light. If this view be correct, it is evident that the recurrence of such an effect in succeeding years is liigldy impro- bable, though of course at all times possible ; depending on a singular combination of atmospheric phenomena, and liable to be produced whenever they again occur ; but not to be expected as a permanent consequence of this year's disease. IV. — Memoranda relating to the Cultivation of 3lelons. By John Williams, Esq., C.M.H.S. ' (Communicated with a Green fleshed Mc4on, ■weighing 2 lbs. 1 1 oz., and a Cabul Melon, weighing 2 lbs. 5 oz. Oct. 14, 1845.) I have desired my gardener to send up a melon or two ripened in my frame, the south end of which is open to the outward air night and day, except that it has some fly-wire screen, the wires being very close together and painted black. This wire screen, standing as it does in the continued inclination of the roof, of course presents a metallic surface of black wire, and, say in sum- mer time from 10 a. m. till 3 p. m., receives the rays of the sun ; the wire is tiien heated say fi'om 80' to lOO"*, and consequently heats the air which passes through the interstices of wire, and I always find the thermometer placed under the shade of the melon leaves standing at 80' or 85'' ; if a very hot day at 90°. The upper ends of the glass frame which forms the north side are raised by wedges according to the weather, from an incli to two MR. WILLIAMS ON THE CULTIVATION OF MELONS. 43 inches higli,as soon as flie sun is on the glass, and not closed till evening. This increases the indraught of air through the ■wire screen, and I consider on every sunny day the melons are ex- posed from 11 A.M. till past 3 p. m. to as hot an atmosphere as is experienced in the southern paits of Italy, with almost as much ventilation as if growing quite in the open air. I have grown Persian melons this way for some years past, and obtained my bottom heat bj- tan and dry leaves, lining the north or upper end of the bed with mowings of my grass, weeds, &c. of the summer. But the bottom heat was often too great in the early part of the season, an^ declined too low in the latter part of the summer. Last spring, therefore, I adopted a certain mode of giving bottom heat, which I contrived forty-one years ago, when I made my grape-house : which is that of a steam-vault under the soil in which tlie plants are intended to grow. The steam-vault is formed by a brick arch ; the sketch suj^poses an end section before the end is closed up by the brick- work of the frame, a, a, brick 9-inch wall ; h, b, the base of the elliptic arch to hold steam ; r, the steam-pipe which con- veys the steam from the boiler, d, holding five gallons, to blow against the surface of the flat brick floor, and thus spread the steam all over the vault instead of rising to the top of the vault in the first instance ; e, the feed cistern with ball-cock on a level with the boiler to supply it with water ; /', a small reservoir which holds eight gallons, to supply the feed cistern. I find boiling the water for about two hours at intervals of twenty-four hours, gives a certain heat to the soil above the arch, and that the temperature of this soil always corresponds with the quantity of water evaporated, as is shown by the sinking of the water in the upper cistern. According to Watt, steam at the temperature of 212° occupies 1500 times as much space as when it existed in its liquid state. I found that boiling the water for about two hours in twenty- four, gave me in ordinary weather in summer, a ground heat of from 78° to 82° or 83°, and that seven gallons of water were eva- porated, as was shown by the loss of water from the upyjcr cistern. Since loOOx T = 10,500, this number of gallons of steam must pass into the \ault, and become condensed on the under surface 41 MR. WILLIAMS OX THE CULTIVATION OF MELOxXS. of the arch and the upper surface of tlie brick floor, where it sinks into the ground and tends to keep up the heat. The melon plants grew rapidly. at about 82° of bottom heat ; but in the warm weather in June, finding it rising too high, I omitted boiling the water fi-om Saturday evening till Monday evening ; this gave me a variable heat between 78° and 82°, the non-supply of heat for twenty-four hours on the Sunday giving the internal heat of the vault time to become reduced. My ap- paratus was rather too late in setting to work, and this, added to the unfavourable weather after the month of June, prevented my melons ripening properljs. 1 had, however, one or two of the Cabul melons after being kept in a warm room for eight or ten days after they were gathered, which were melting and good ; and had the season been such as the sunmier of 1844, I have no doubt but they would have proved excellent. V. — Local Hdbitation and Wants of Plants. By tiie lion, and Very Rev. William Herbert, F.H.S., Dean of Manchester. (Communicated November 1", 1845.) Cephalanthera rubra (otherwise called Serapias rubra) is said to grow in the woods of Ingleborough, in Yorkshire, and I once saw a weak specimen of it without flower in the neighbour- hood of Hampton Common, in Gloucestershire. While I was in the neighbourhood of Thuu I learnt that this plant, of which I had as yet seen nothing in my rambles amongst the woods in the mountains near tlie lake, inhabited a large wood further from the town. ■ I was desirous of seeing it in its native place, with a view to observe what the circumstances were that caused it to be so rare and confined to peculiar localities. I therefore proceeded along the edge of the beautiful lake till I found myself opposite to the commencement of the wood that had been pointed out to ine. It was very extensive, densely timbered, and exceedingly steep, the lower part of the declivity being occupied bj^ meads and vineyards. It was evident that without some clue to disco- 'ver the precise habitation of the plant I wished to find, I might, after a long scramble through a wood that was nearly precipi- tous, return home without having seen it. Looking therefore to the nature of the ground, it occurred to me that, if it grew under such thick shade in so steep a position, it would probably prefer the neighbourhood of some channel along which the rain-water rushed down from the mountain. I determined therefore to attack the wood at that point, and, entering the dry and stony DE. IIEKBEUr ON THE LOCAL HABITATION OF PLANTS. 45 water-course by which the thunder-storm of the previous evening liad hurried down its torrent to tlie lake, I followed it till 1 reached the border of the wood ; and entering it, I had not ad- vanced two steps before I saw three plants of Cephalanthera rubra, weak and without flower, in the channel, and growing from under some round stones washed down from tiie conglomerate above. 'J"he groove was here very deep, and its sides, on the right and left, too steep to be climbed without laying hold of the roots or boughs. I made my way however to the top of it, and pro- ceeded some way along the brow and sides without seeing any orcliidaceous plant, except tlie butterfly orclus. Thereupon I descended again to tlie bottom of the ravine, where I immedi- ately found the Cepiialanthera abundant, but weak, growing in a mixture of sand and rotten leaves under the round stones. Fol- lowing the water-course upwards I continued to find it ; and at last, on an angle of a stronger yellow earth, at the junction of two water-courses, I found the plant more abundant, stronger, and just coming into flower. It seemed that this plant likes dense shade, not upon a northern slope, but in an aspect which lets in a checkering of sunshine ; that it requires the heavy coat of dead beech-leaves to be washed away by waters, and its roots to be frequently refreshed by the great body of water that runs down after every heavy rain, but does not remain and stagnate on the ground. The dead stems of last year were still adhering to the plants, and I did not see a single specimen with two stalks either of the present or of the last year. At the foot of each stalk, where it joined the fibrous roots, was a single eye for the next year's shoot. AVith this knowledge of the plant's habits (if those which I brought home survive the transplantation and journey in the season of their growth, so as to sprout again) I should hope to be able to cultivate them. I had previously observed that Cypripedium Calceolus, grow- ing in open grassy spots on the steepest knolls in the woods, was in its glory on the brow of a deep ravine, through which a strong and constant stream of water ran down, which after heavy rains would be greatly swollen. The earth seemed also to be moistened by water from above, unable to penetrate the rock underneath, and occasionally bursting out througli the soil. It is evident to me, that mountain-plants require mucii moisture, and that drought is their principal enemy in cultivation. I observed Gentiana verna flourishing on the southern brow of the San Gothard Alp, where the clouds must often rest : I next saw it more vigorous in the marshes between the lakes of Tiiun and Brienz, where water was absolutely standing, in com- pany with Primula farinosa and Orchis latifolia, both notori- 46 DR. HERBERT ON THE LOCAL HABITATIOX OF PLANTS. ously swamp plants ; the former of which flowered most pro- fusely when aljsolutely in the water of a ditch. I afterwards observed Gentiana verna, not less healthy, with Pinguicula vul- garis, in sucti a hill-side bog near Thun as a jack-snipe is apt to select for his residence. , Orchis (or Ilerminiuni) Monorchis is found in England on slopes of chalk and stonebrash. I met with it in the reed-beds close to the edge of the lake of Brienz, in company with Epi- pactis (or Serapias) palustris ; and I also saw one vigorous plant of Orchis militaris, which is reputed to grow only on dry chalk, in the same marsh ; and tiiree in a flat, half-flooded meadow near the sea, a few miles from Trieste. These observations lead me on to a question whicli has often suggested itself to me, " Why do plants, which are found only in particular situations, improve under cultivation, and (as I believe to be the case) more so than those which are generally dispersed?" and, consequently, "Is the soil or subsoil, on which alone certain plants are found in a wild state, necessary to them, or at least always best for them?" I think the answers must be " No " to the latter question ; and to the former question, " Because tlieir most dangerous rivals, which in a wild state would overpower them, in richer soil are removed ;" and that in truth the weaker plants in many cases are peculiar to those soils which are not best for them, but where they can exist, and where the gra.ss and other enemies cannot grow ^vith sufii- cient strength to choke them. I found Crocus variegatus on the Carso of the mountains behind Trieste, where the grass is so meagre that the grey stones look through it ; but there a very small proportion of the bulbs bear flowers, and still fewer yield seed. The crocuses of the Ionian Islands are in the same manner dispersed amongst the rocks and stones of the mountains, where there is scarcely any grass, and in the spots where the cistus and other mountain- shrubs do not overpower them ; but they flower and fruit very sparingly, and the bulbs are very small and weak : and the same I understand to be the case on the Alps of Trebizond, where, as well as on Bithynian Olynqjus, the bulbs are curiously diminutive from the poverty of the soil and bleakness of the position. On Mount Roudi, in Cephalonia, the greater part of those I saw were perishing from a nuirrain which seemed to have been induced by very wet weather in February and March. Yet crocuses brought from calcareous mountains into the gar- den of a Dutch florist, and severed from their native soil, acquire tenfold vigour and size of bulb. Few, however, of the cro- cuses from rocky mountains flower when taken up till they have been one year in cultivation. I apprehend the fact DR. HERBERT ON THE LOCAL HABITATION OF PLANTS. 47 to be this — that, if the seed of the crocus were to fall in such a goodly heritage without the protection of the weed- ing-hoe, it would be strangled in its birth by stronger oc- cupants ; and that, on the chalk and other calcareous rocks, there are places where few vegetables can exist ; while the bulbs of this and some other genera take refuge there and get a poor livelihood in peace and quiet. I saw a Crocus, a Sternebergia, and an Ornithogaluni growing in contact with each other aloft on the meagre sod of Mount Qinos ; but not a seed-pod of the Sternebergia could be discovered, and very few of the crocus. In a more fertile sod they would have been choked by some stronger plant, but they would rejoice in a better soil, if protected against the oppressor. The usual habitation of the various species of crocus is on calca- reous mountains ; and, as such are of various descriptions, they seek a more elevated or a steep position, which is unfavouiable to the growth of grass, on those whicli are most fertile. .Some species, however, like more humidity than others ; and C. speciosus and Byzantinus, which desire a fertile soil, seek the shade of woods, where the roots of trees perforate the earth and render it looser and drier than it would be otherwise. From the mountains be- hind Trieste to the south of Greece the soil oti which crocus grows becomes gradually redder as we advance, and is intensely so in the neighbourhood of Nauplia : in Negropont it is browner, and on the lofty Veluchi, in .^tolia, slightly ferruginous towards the summit ; but the bulbs are more vigorous in detritus of greyish greenstone, on its lower projections and near its base. In all these positions the soil is rather strong, but dry. One only species in the Cyclades is said to grow in sand upon clay. The compost, in which the Dutch raise their improved bulbs of various kinds, is known to be (see Sismondi, des Jacinthes) a compost of humus, obtained from thoroughly decayed elm-leaves and dung of stall-fed cattle, and mixed with sand deposited by the sea on a bed of prostrate timber of unknown antiquity, in which there is probably nothing calcareous. Does it not then appear that the case stands thus — not that calcareous matter is essential to the growth of crocus, or even a useful auxiliary, but that crocus can bear the sterility of elevated calcareous mountains better than most other plants of stronger growth ? If that be true of one genus, it will probably be applicable to others. Let us proceed from that consideration to more general views. The richest soils, if well moistened, will necessarily be occupied by the vegetables which grow most rapidly, and with such spreading and persistent foliage as to prevent slower but more robust rivals from gradually supplanting them ; but that '18 DR. IIIi:RI!ErvT ON THE LOCAL HABITATION OF PLANTS, which has sufficient powers of endurance to struggle tlirough, will become the ultimate lord of tiie forest. Such is, ])eriiaps, the sugar-maple of America, which is said to reign almost exclu- sively on the best soil. In each successive grade of inferior fer- tility the like struggle must be maintained, and the power of endurance must finally determine whicli shall be the occupants of each several position ; thougli the question of endurance will turn upon various points, such as excess or deficiency of light, heat, and moisture, and denseness or lightness of the atmosphere or soil. The first step in cultivation is therefore the use of the extir- pator of intrusive vegetables, whether it be the hand, or the hoe, or the plough and harrow ; the second step, after having ascertained whether the plant in its natural state exists by endur- incr the want or the excess of moisture or heat, will be to relieve c? / it i'rom the necessity of such endurance, as far as it is injurious to its vigorous development. Thus it will be found that Orchis latifolia, removed from the swamp, in which it struggles with other swamp-plants, will grow more vigorously where it is culti- vated with less wet. Tlie small Polygala vulgaris is stated in Mr. Babington's Manual to grow in dry pastures, having flowers either blue, white, or red. I believe the stated habitation to be only thus far true, that it does not grow in water. I do not recollect seeing it in sandy pastures : I know it well on chalk and on clay. In Englar.d it is little admired. In the alluvial and very moist meadows of Zante, near the sea, in the vicinity of Trieste, it formed a most conspicuous part of the meadow-crop at the end of May, and the beauty with which it painted the herbage was to me astonishing. It seemed that, in a warmer climate, it could endure more moisture than with us. On the slope of Monte Spaccato, where no grass grows, large single plants of it stood in the bare soil amongst the stones, with every interme- diate diversity of pearl-colour and lilac, showing evidently that the merits of that little plant under cultivation are not appreci- ated or known. We must recollect that sandy soil could not abide on very steep hill-sides. On the San Gothard pass I observed the little yellow violet, of which I had possessed a plant twenty-five years ago that was quickly lost, flowering profusely on the northern face of rocks from which water oozed through every crevice. Sometimes its roots were confined between two horizontal layers of stone, and it flourished all along the crack, in the manner of the small trailing snapdragon ; sometimes it grew under an overhanging ledge of rock ; but, where tlie ground amongst the rocks was constantly moistened by a fresh supply of oozing water and the sun did not reach, it luxuriated. DR. HERBEUT ON THE LOCAL HABITATION OF PLANTS. 49 The Pyramidal Saxifrage delig-lits in similar positions, growing often on the bare rocii, of which the crumbled particles gathered round its roots, and they were constantly refreshed by the issuing moisture ; but it had a wider range than the yellosv violet : flou- rishing in such positions in the narrow valley of the Ticino as Avell as on the Alps, its graceful blossoms waving in the air, and pendulous, not naturally pyramidal. The rare Saxifraga mutata, which has the same general aspect as to the foliage, with a spike of yellow flowers, was pointed out to me in the neighbourhood of the lake of Thun actually riding on the water of a mountain- brook, with its roots spreading vmder a large stone in a wide naked space of round and pulverised stones, towards the mouth of the deep ravine along which they had been brought down from the mountain. I was told that I should have no chance of preserving it alive, unless it could be planted inmiediately. It was therefore tied up in a piece of linen with a handful of the stone- powder in which it grew, and, being kept moist, it reached England alive. Climbing the steep sides of the ravine afterwards, I saw several more of the same species aloft, where the water burst out, and one was growing in a tuft of moss. I pulled up another also, which was near, and, inserting its roots into the same moss, I tied the moss in the shape of a ball, and they were so brought to England. The first was potted in its native soil, and, having been left three M'eeks in the care of my gardener, was found to be dead on my return. The moss-ball had been set in the mouth of a pot filled with moss, and placed in a large pan of water. The two plants in it have continued to thrive well, and that which had been pulled out of the ground cannot be distin- guished from the original occupier of the moss. The plant was figured about forty years ago in the ' Botanical Magazine,' where it is stated that great care must be taken not to give it much water. It is very possible that in a pot of earth, the wet which is suitable on a rock in moss might cause the fibres to rot, if the drainage were insufficient. I am however satisfied that the diffi- culty of cultivating Gentiana verna arises merely from its thirsti- ness, and that it should be planted in a mixture of strong soil with jieat, or in a bed of peat on clay. It is said that Epigaea repens, which has been found the most difficult of plants to cul- tivate, will thrive in a peat-bed of great depth. I apprehend that in such case its extreme roots find moisture below when the peat near the surface becomes too dry for it. Probably a less depth of peat would preserve it, if a cup-formed bed of clay were placed under the peat to retain moisture. VOL. I. 50 AlE. EREINGTON ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE VINE. VI. — llie Main Points of Vine Cultivation. By Mr. Robert Errington, Gardener to Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.II.S. (Communicated with specimens ofWest's St. Peter's Grape, Nov. 4, 1845.) In compliance with the desire of the Council of the Horti- cultural Society, I beg to accompany the late grapes now ex- hibited with a few general remarks on the most important points connected with the cultivation of the vine, especially un- der glass. With regard to border-making and thorough drainage : I am persuaded that a vast proportion of the grapes which do not colour well, are planted in borders Jiot adapted to meet the great extremes of moisture to which our fitful climate is subject. It is also certain that over-cropping alone is one cause of the colour- ing, and of course the flavouring, process being incomplete in a great number of cases. It is quite clear from numberless instances, that porous ma- terials for the mere transmission of moisture, and of course atmo- spheric influences, may be used to the extent of nearly one half the volume of the compost with propriety. Mr. Iloare's system as it is called, although a failure, will, I make no doubt, have done much good in this respect : one of Mr. Hoare's chief errors being undoubtedly the total exclusion of soil from his compost. Whatever deptli of border may be adopted, the substratum should be so complete as to bid defiance to excess of moisture from both springs beneath, and atmospheric moisture above. This being secured, the next point is compost; chopped turf of a loamy character, and inclined to what is termed " sandy loam," is, I am assured, complete, or nearly so, in itself for this purpose, providing the previous points be eflficiently secured : as, however, soils, as well as subsoils, differ so much in point of mechanical texture, it is perliaps wise on the whole to use a mixture which, in point of texture, may bid defiance to all weathers. Two-thirds then of the loam above described, with the other third composed of equal parts of charred brush-wood, old plaster, and what is termed by agriculturists " half-inch bone," (boiled bone), will be found all that can be desired or nearly so in bor- der-making. The loamy turf should be from very old rest land, the older the ley the better ; if not of considerable age, I would prefer it from an old lane or road side. It should be merely quartered with the spade, and should by no means be either cut or handled in any way when wet ; dryness is as indispensable a point in handling the material for a vine border as for harvestinji:. MR. ERRIiVGTOX OX THE CULTIVATION OF THE VINE. 51 The loamy turf should be thrown in alternate layers with the other portion of the materials, which should be well blended together, and close at hand : — some raw stable marmre, chiefly droppings, should be strewed in thin and regular layers, all through the mass : before, however, filling the above compost, which I should advise to be two feet in depth, I would place a layer of half-charred brush-wood, of some strength, over the drainage and substratum ; this layer should be nearly a foot in depth. Such a border I am assured would defy all weathers, and would be found after several years, on the stamp of a foot, to have preserved its elasticity in a very considerable degree ; pro- viding that mortal enemy to texture, " the spade," be kept from it. It would only be necessary to cover the roots occasionally with a slight dressing of raw manure, the moment the vines had cast their leaves. Some cultivators seem to think that a healthy vine will carry all the fruit it may " show :" so it will, but in what way ? — vvhy, in the production of small berries, deficient in colour and flavour ; for be it understood, the two latter points always accompany each other. In addition to this another evil is to be feared, viz., an injurious lessening of the vital energies of the vine. It will generally be found, I believe, after all the complaints about large grapes, that the latter when thoroughly coloured are decidedly richer than the under-sized ones. It may be asked therefore, what is the true medium to be ob- served ? It is, I confess, not easy to answer this so as to be per- fectly understood ; however, as a general rule, I should say that spurred vines confined to the rafter, and established on the prin- ciple of border-making before detailed, will assuredly, under good management, produce from fifteen to twenty pounds weight each, every year, for many years. Vines spread over the whole house will yield a third more. It is, however, a better plan, where very superior fruit is tiie object, to keep below this mark. The leading shoot, if there be one, is a pretty good criterion of the energies af the vine ; this, if the vine is honestly cropped, should always be disposed, and also allowed if possible, to ramble freely. One point in connexion with good grape-growing is an ele- vated border. One half of the cubical contents of a vine border should, in my estimation, be above the ground-level of the front walk. Now it will be found, I believe, on close examination, that a great portion of the old vinei-ies in the kingdom, by a defect in the original plan of fixing the floor-line too low, pre- clude, by the level of the front sashes (if any exist), the possi- bility of the border being much higher. Now as it will, I con- E 2 52 JIR. EKRINGTOX ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE VINE. ceive, be admitted tliat tlie floor-line lias in most cases an intimate relation witli the wall-plate, and of course tlie front sashes, it becomes a matter of considerable importance to establish it aright ; and I always consider it an omen of good vine culture to ascend into a vinery by several steps. Another and a very common error, according to my opinion, is the mode of managing young vines for the first two years in newly-planted vineries : they are disbudded and trimmed as sprucely as if the object w^as to carry heavy crops and to obtain plump eyes. Now the primary object of good cultivation should be, I conceive, to obtain a border tolerably well filled with roots. The best way to accomplish this is to allow the top to run riot entirely for the first year, and nearly so in the second ; for without abundance of leaf there cannot be abundance of root. In the second year, however, the laterals should be stripped en- tirely away, in a progressive manner, from as much of the main stem as it is intended to retain at the winter's pruning, in order to admit light to the principal leaves, on the agency of which the success of the first year's fruit depends. It has been the opinion of many, perhaps the majority of cul- tivators, that "shanking" in grapes is occasioned by atmospheric influences: I am of a very difi'erent opinion. I do not however say that such checks, through sudden depressions of temperature, do not assist in causing it — they fairly may. The chief cause is, liowever, torpidity in the action of the root, perhaps at the very period when the greatest demand is made upon it to sustain the excessive perspiration which is going on in the leaf, and to fur- nish fresh matter for elaboration ; to both which ends it is fre- quently quite inadequate, owing to drenching rains. If tlie young fibre be examined at such inclement periods, it will be found somewhat discoloured ; nay, in some cases quite rotten. And this is not to be wondered at when the habits of the plant are duly considered, and the diffigrence estimated be- tween a vine on the slope of a rocky surface in the south of Europe or Asia, with six inches of soil, and one in the cold northern clime of Britain, in four or five feet of rich soil, every breathing pore closed with a kind of alluvium. This is no over- charged picture — I have seen scores of such cases. Besides, if shanking were caused bj' sudden depressions of tem- perature, why should it not occur more frequently on walls out of doors, wliere the thermometrical changes are at least as great as in doors ? Yet here it seldom occurs, and here again the border is seldom so deep, so rich, or so far below the surface level, as some of our hothouse borders, many of which contain material sufficient for thrice their extent. The West's St. Peter's Grape, of which I now send specimens, MR. ErvRTNGTOX ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE VINE. 53 is undoubtedly tlie best late grape in the kingdom in every re.spect. It is not sufficiently known at the present time, nor its habits sufficiently understood ; added to which there are spurious kinds under cultivation. It is a grape which will endure as much heat as a Tokay, and might be planted in the same house. Still with me they are classed witli the Hambros for latest purposes, and have to endure a very moderate tempera- ture ; however, I never knew one to shank, and I consider it the safest colouring grape in cultivation. The flavour is moreover exceedingly brisk and rich, and the bloom, when syringing is withheld, is most beautiful. On its own root it is apt to make slender wood, especially for the first three or four years ; it is also liable to wither at the point of tlie growing young wood, at intervals during tlie growing season, during that period. This, I liave no doubt, arises in a considerable degree from the same cau.se as " shanking," according to my ideas of that evil, as before described. However, as the border becomes more full of roots this evil departs altogether — at least it has done so with me — for those undei" my care, at first liable to shrivel in the wood, have now been perfectly free from it for years. I would here beg to recommentl those who are inclined to grow the St. Peter's, to graft it on the Black Hambro' stock. This was pointed out to me some years since by the Earl of Sefton's gardener at Croxteth (Mr. Balmer), and 1 have found his opinion to be correct. Mr. Balmer had pushed the cultivation of this grape to a great extent some twelve or fifteen years ago, and used to produce at that period some of the most splendid fruit I ever saw. Two reasons appear to me to recommend this prac- tice : first, the Black Ilambro' root is hardier or better adapted to stand the low ground temperature of this climate ; and, secondly, the Black Hambro', through this circumstance, has a later action of root than most other vines, and consequently the berries are longer fed with the ascending current. This is, I think, tolerably manifest from the circumstance of the Hambro', in a mixed house of vines, being the last or nearly so to fade. The Muscats will also, I have no doubt, be found to do better when treated tliis way, for the same reasons. Syringing not only may but ought to be dispensed with after the grapes are " set," if a fine bloom is desired ; a sufficiently humid atmo.sphere may at all times be maintained without the .syringe. One of the most simple and efficient plans is to enclo.se the return- pipe, if hot water be used, with a cemented brick trough, with a plug at the end, to empty its contents into a waste-drain when necessary ; the top of the cemented trough, of course, left open. As for the arguments in defence of syringing, such as the danger of Eed Spider, &c., they will all fall readily before an 54 ME, ERRINGTON ON THE crLTIVATION OF THE VINE. atmosphere properly charged with moisture, not variably, but permanently. The best late grape-growing I ever saw, established on sound principles, was at Colney Hatch — Mr. Crawshay's. Those who are acquainted with that system would do well, in my opinion, to apply it to the growth of the St. Peter's Vine, for late pur- poses. Mr. C. prunes, as is well known, to the " spur-eyes." Now I know of no vine that will better bear the " close spur" method than the St. Peter's. Mr. C. moreover allows, or rather prefers, two or perhaps three shoots from one pair of *' spur-eyes," each with a bunch of half a pound to three quarters, to one shoot with a bunch of double or treble the weight. Small bunches with large berries, well fed and well thinned, are found to keep much better than large bunches ; the reason is obvious — the air circulates more freely through the bunch. I need say little about the " ripening of the wood :" this principle is well known, and I should hope its importance admitted ; too much stress cannot be laid on the point, and many are the failures through the neglect or misunderstanding of this very thing. I am of opinion that what is termed " close stopping" is frequently carried too far ; a main leader should in all cases be allowed a good deal of liberty, this being the very thing that produces a fresh volume of root to invigorate the system of the plant for ensuing seasons. I am well aware that it will be said that this militates in some degree against extreme size in the berry. Be it so. I would willingly give up so trifling a point (providing it can be proved) for a more invigorated and perma- nent system in the vine. Oulton Park, near Tarporley, November 3rd, 1845. VII. — Mode of cultivating the Mango in England. By Mr. A. Scott, Gardener to Sir Geo. Staunton, Bart., M.P., F.H.S. (Communicated with specimens of Ripe Mangoes. Sept. 24, 184.5.) In offering the following remarks on the cultivation of the Mango, I may be permitted to observe that in tropical coun- tries it is a magnificent, spreading fruit tree, with very dense, dark shining green foliage. The flowers are produced at tlie extremity of the branches in upright panicles, whitish, sweet scented, and very numerous ; but owing to imperfections in the ME. SCOTT ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE MANGO. 55 staniens and pistil, each panicle only produces a few fruit. On the plant that fruited here, two, three, or four mangoes were on each panicle, of an oval or kidney-shape, about four inches long, their colour olive-green, and when ripe tinged with red on the side next the sun ; the skin was thin and tasted of turpentine, but the flesh or pulp which adhered to the stone was delicate, sweet, and not at all stringy, with a rich warm flavour, and without any terebinthine taste. The Powis mangoes, raised at AValcot, in 1826, are figured and described in the Horticultural Transactions, and in the Gardener's Chronicle Mr. Bond has given an interesting ac- count of the treatment of the plants at AV^alcot, in 1839. I therefore hope that the very great interest attached to the successful cultivation of this celebrated fruit may be sufficient apology for my bringing the subject again before the Horticul- tural Society, as my only object is to encourage others to per- severe, believing that we shall experience no real difficulties, although tlie plant has only ripened its fruit in two English gardens since its introduction into the country about 150 years ago. I therefore purpose to give a brief account of the treatment of the oldest plant here, and then to point out what we con- sider most important in that treatment. It was purchased from Messrs. Loddiges and Sons, about four years ago, and was then about three feet high, with two branches. The first and second summer it was kept in the stove until it had made two growths each season ; and when the young growths were matured, it was removed to a cooler house to rest for the winter. In the winter of 1843 the terminal or leading buds of the upright shoots were picked out, in order to dwarf the plant and fit it for training near the glass (the plants are impatient of being pruned, and the knife should not be used) ; next spring numerous side branches were produced, almost in a horizontal position, and during that season only one growth was made, and during the winter the plant was treated as in previous seasons, and last March several panicles of flowers were produced, which were succeeded by the fruit, which set very thinly, but when once fairly set, they ar- rived at maturity in due time. A few weeks previous to ripen- ing they stop growing, and only very slightly change colour. The plant is now in a cool climate, and promises well for another season. In April, after the fruit was set, it was shifted from a pot of twelve inches diameter into one about eighteen inches diameter, and is now about eight feet high, with a spreading head of about eight yards in circumference. The stove in which the plants are grown varies in tempera- 56 ME. SCOTT ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE MANGO. ture during the growing season from 65° min. to 85° max., with abundance of moisture. It is heated by hot water in pipes and tanks, and as there is sufficient command of heat, air is admitted freely in mild weather. The plants are wintered in a cool, rather dry climate, varying from 50° or 55° min. to 60° or 65° max. The soil we use for them is composed of about two parts light turfy loam, and one part a mixture of peat sand and wood- ashes. We use plenty of drainage, and the pots are not plunged in anything. AYhat I consider of most importance in the above treatment, is dwarfing tlie plants, to render them spreading and suitable for training near the glass, and insuring healthy, vigorous growth in summer, and a cool dry climate for the plants to rest in dur- ing winter, or until the end of February or March. And owing to imperfections in the Ijlossoms, I would recommend artificial impregnation and a rather dry climate, during the time the plants are in flower. My experience does not warrant me in stating whether or not imported grafted plants can be depended on for healtiiy fruiting plants, as no grafted plant has yet fruited in this country ; but we know that the fine varieties may be increased by grafts, and also by cuttings. As the best of the famous mangoes of Bombay are obtained from grafted plants, no doubt but they will also succeed in this country. VIII. — The Cultivation of the Starry Dysophyl, a Tropical Annual. By Mr. T. Moore, gardener to the Earl of Auck- land, Vice-President. [Two specimens were exhibited at the Society's Meeting, Dec. 2, 1 845, and received a Silver Banksian Medal.] This is a beautiful little pale green annual, found in damp or watery places in the East Indies. It has starry leaves like those of Bedstraw, unbranched stems about afoot high, and cylindrical feathery spikes of brilliant light purple. Its seeds are sown early in January, in a well-drained 48 sizeti pot, in soil consisting of peat, loam, and sand in equal proportions, sifted fine, and filling the pot to within half an inch of the top. The soil is watered before being sown. The seed being very small is not covered with soil, but is gently pressed down, a piece of glass is laid flat on the top of tlie pot, anfl a pan is placed beneath for future waterings ; it is then placed in heat at about 70 de- grees. The seed comes up in about five or six weeks, when I ME. MOORE ON THE CULTIVATION OF STAKEY DYSOPHTL. 57 gradually remove the glass, giving all future waterings overhead. As soon as I can handle the young plants I prick them out into small sixties, giving them plenty of water, and placing them near the glass in the orchidaceous house, where I always keep them. In May they are shifted into their blooming pots (thirty- twos or twenty-fours) in light rich soil, consisting of turfy loam, peat, and rotten dung, in equal proportions, with a little sand and charcoal. To the plants grown in the thirty-two, in addition to the above compost, I put a handful of crushed bones over the drainage. After they are well established I keep them saturated with water, and give them manure water twice a week cUiring their early stages of growth. They strike freely from slips placed for a few days under a bell glass in heat. They continue in bloom six weeks or two montiis, but I have never been able to keep a plant after it has done flowering. Leigh Park, Havcuit. IX. — Some Account of the Cryptomeria Japonica, or Japan Cedar. By Mr. George Gordon, A.L.S., Superintendent of the Hardy Department in the Society's Garden. Few hardy plants are of more importance in England, during winter, than evergreens, more especially those of large dimen- sions, not only for objects of decoration, but for what is of greater importance in many situations, the pro\ iding shelter from bleak winds during the colder portions of the year ; and as the Japan Cedar is likely not only to prove hardy, but to form quite a new feature in our landscapes, much resembling the Australian form of Araucaria, a short account of its history and treatment may not be without interest. The first account we find of the existence of this Japan Cedar is by Professor Thunberg, who, in the year 1784, published its history in his Flora Japonica, p. 265, under the name of Cupressus Japonica. He states that it is found, both spontaneous and planted, on the mountains of Nagasaki and elsewhere; that the Japanese call it San or Sugi, whicli, in their language, signifies an evergreen tree, with stiff bristle- shaped leaves ; that it is a very tall upriglit tree, with a pyramidal head, bearing flowers in Marcli ; that the timber is very soft, so as to be easily worked, but much used for various purposes, particu- larly for cabinet work among the Japanese. Nothing further seems to have been added to our knowledge of this beautiful tree until 1834, when Professor Don published a 58 MR. GOllDON ON THE CRYPTOMERIA JAPONICA. Cn'ptomeria.Taponica. 1. An old branch in fruit ; 2. A branc-liof a very young plant. MR GORDON ON THE CKYPTOMERIA JAPONICA. 59 more technical description, with an uncoloured plate, in the 18th volume of the Transactions of tlie Linnaean Society, under the name of Cryptomeria Japonica. His account was drawn up from the original specimen found in that portion of tlie Society's Herbarium wliich formerly belonged to their late President, Sir J. E. Smitli, and which he obtained from the younger Linnaeus, who had it from his friend and successor Tlumberg, afTer his re- turn from Japan. Mr. Loudon, in his large edition of the Arboretum and Fruti- cetum Britannicum, merely mentions the tree under the old name, at the end of Cupressineae, upon the autliority of Thunberg, and in the last or abridged edition of the Arboretum Britannicum omits the name altogether as being very doubtful. No certain account regarding it appears to have been again given, from the lime of Thunberg, until the year 1844, when Dr. Siebold, in his beautiful Flora Japonica, gave a coloured plate and a detailed account of it, from which 1 have made the following extracts. He says " that this majestic tree perfectly well deserves the name of Cedar, its name in Japan ; that it grows from 60 to 100 feet in height, and 4 to 5 feet in diameter, with a pyramidal shaped head, and rather erect or horizontal branches ; that it occurs in great abundance on the three great Isles of Japan, and most pro- bably on the smaller ones ; that a tenth part of the forests which cover the skirts of the mountains between 500 and 1200 feet of elevation, is composed of this Japan cedar." Still nothing was known of the living plants in England, or perhaps in Europe, until Mr. Fortune succeeded in obtaining seeds at Shanghai, in the north of China, for the Society. They reached the Garden in a living state, about the end of May, 1844, and from these the first plants were raised. Since that time an abundant supply has been received by the Society from the same source. Cryptomeria Japonica is found plentifully about Shanghai, where it no doubt has been introduced from Japan ; for naval officers who have been on that station assure us that it is very plentiful in the form of avenues and in groves in the neighbourhood of Shanghai, and in the other northern parts of China, and that it furnishes the principal shelter for the nu- merous birds during the extreme cold and bleak winds in winter, when the thermometer sometimes falls as low as within 5 degrees of zero. There can be little doubt therefore that it will prove quite hardy in England. Some idea may be formed of this beautiful tree by imagining such stately objects as the Australian Araucarias, particularly Cunninghami, with a less aspiring and denser habit, and living in the open air in winter. Indeed the young plants 60 MK. GORDON ON THE CEYPTOMErvIA JAPONICA. of C. Japonica and Araucaria Cunninghami have so great a resemblance that it requires a practised eye to distinguish the one from the other. The principal difference is, that the Crypto- meria has alternate spiral branches, which are rather slender, while those of the Araucaria are vertical and placed at regular distances. This Cryptomeria appears intermediate between Cupressus and Taxodium, differing from the former in a seedling state by having from three to five, but mostly four, seed-leaves, while Cupressus has but two; and in its more advanced stages of growth, in its longer, more distant, subulate, incurved, spiral, dark green leaves, and in the cones having fringed scales. From Taxodium it is at once distinguished by its spiral subulate leaves unlike those of Taxodium, which are flat and two-rowed. In regard to cultivation, the Japan Cedar seems as easily managed as the common Chinese Arbor Vitse, and like it suc- ceeds in almost any kind of soil or situation which is not very poor or wet. Tlie seeds, like those of all Conifers, should be sown in a light sandy rather diy loam, and should be placed in a cool situation ; when large enougli the i)lants should be potted singly and treated in the usual way, and if properly attended to they will attain a height of from twelve to eighteen inches the first year. It ap- pears to be a very rapid grower. X. — On the Propagation of Orchids in India. By Cai)tain Charles Giberne, Acting Paymaster, S. Division of the Army. [In a letter to the Vice-Secretary, dated Belgaum (70 miles E. of Goa), October 20th, 1845.] As I believe the propagation of Terrestrial Orchids to l)e still a great desideratum with English gardeners, I am induced, on the suggestion of a friend, to detail two or three experiments 1 have lately made with that view, and in which I have met with some success. In July I took up a Platanthera Susannae when about three inches high, removed the old tuber, leaving the rest of tlie root attached to the plant, and then set them separately. In about six weeks the plant had sent down a new tuber, the old one having also, in the mean time, formed a new one wiiich had sent up a single leaf for nourislnnent. I then broke off from the latter tlie old tuber a second time, and reset it separately, but on examining CAPT. GIBERNE ON ORCHIDS IN INDIA. 61 it a few days ago I found it liad rotted. Two perfect tubers have, liowever, been tlius formed from one plant ; and I do not despair of obtaining three, or even four, another year by removing the old tuber at an earlier period ; but the new ones will not then, in all probability, have obtained sufficient size or strength to perfect their tlowers till the second or third year. In the course of the same month, finding that the tuber had rotted off a Platanthera Susannse, I pulled up the stem, cut off the lower end, and reset it. In about a month, the cutting beginning to fade, I took it up and found that a small and per- fect tuber had been protrudetl through the sheath of the stem from the lower joint of the cutting. I have since made cuttings of two or three stems, leaving two joints on each ; but as it is very late in the season, and the plants have only their seeds to perfect, I nmch doubt if sufficient vitality remains to enable them to put forth fresh tubers, but I intend to try next year before the plants have flowered. NEW PLANTS, ETC., FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 1. Anemone Sxvo\ic\, Sieholdand Zuccarini, Fl. Japo- nica, vol. i., p. 15, t. 5 ; Botanical Register, t. 66, 1845. Received from Mr. Fortune, from Shanghai, June 20, 1844. A perennial herbaceous plant, with dark green stems slightly clothed with short hairs. The leaves all grow from the root, on stalks about 4 inches long ; they are ternate, with long-stalked, ovate, somewhat heart-shaped leaflets, slightly 3-lobed, and coarsely serrated. The stem is from 1^ to 2 feet high, dividing near the middle into slender branches, one of which is terminated by a single flower, and the three others by a small cluster. At the separation of these branches are three smaller leaves, with very broad short sheathing petioles. The flowers are nearly three inclies in diameter, and consist of a considerable number of 62 NEW PLANTS, ETC., bri'i-ht purple leaves of a somewliat obovate form, and about half an inch wide ; most of tliem are undivided, but a few have irre- gular lobes at the side ; those on the outside are smaller, green- ish at the back, and covered with silky hairs. The stamens are very short. Tlie pistil is a hemispherical green cushion, composed of very short broad-styled carpels. It is a green-house plant which will grow freely in a mixture of loam and peat. This species requires an ample supply of water throughout the year. It will doubtless be abundantly mul- tiplied from seed. This is of considerable importance in consequence of its flow- ering in autumn, after the generality of green-house plants are over. Aug. 29, 1845. 2. BuDDLEA LiNDLEYANA, 7^or<^^«e; in Botanical Regis- ter, 1844, No. 25, Misc. Received from Mr. Fortune, November 14, 1843, as a graceful Shrub, with long spikes of beautiful blue or purple flowers, from Chusan. This is a branching shrub apparently about as large as a Persian lilac ; with snaooth four-cornered winged branches, which when very young are clothed with a minute rusty down. The leaves are opposite, ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed, coarsely toothed, quite smooth, bright green and wrinkled on the upper side, paler beneath, with short stalks. The flowers are dull violet, scentless, about an inch long, arranged in erect one-sided racemes about 6 inches long, and covered Avith minute clusters of crystalline glands, which give them a downy appearance. The calyx is a very short, obtusely four-toothed cup. The corolla is between tubular and funnel-shaped, with an erect four-lobed, obtuse border, which is much darker coloured than the remainder of the corolla. The anthers are linear, nearly sessile, and arranged in a ring below the middle of the tube of the corolla. This plant grows luxuriantly out of doors in almost any sort of soil, and is hardy enough to stand mild winters without protec- tion ; but whether or not it will flower freely there remains to be determined. It blooms pretty well in a greenhouse, especially where it can be planted out. It is easily propagated from cut- tings in the usual way. As a conservatory plant it appears to be important, and should it flower as freely out of doors as it does in China it will be a very desirable shrub. Aug. 27, 1845. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 63 3. Ficus viRG ATA. Roxburgh, Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. 530. Raised from seeds from the North of India ; presented by the Honourable Court of Directors of the East India Company. In general appearance this shrub resembles the common eat- able fig, but it seems to form a much smaller bush. The young shoots, leaves, and fruit are covered with fine short hairs. The leaves are roundish -ovate, from 3 to 4 inches long, regularly ser- rated all round, except at tlie very base, and seated on taper stalks rather less than half their own length ; they are slightly wrinkled on the upper side, but verj' much so on the lower. The figs are seated on short stalks, hav"^ a pear-shaped figure, and seem to be as large as the fruit of the sorb ; usually they appear singly, but in some instances two have grown from the same axil. A deciduous shrub, capable of withstanding an ordinary winter, if planted in a dry situation. It was killed to the ground by the last severe winter. It grows freely in any good garden soil. It has no beauty as an object of cultivation, and is only interest- ing as a distinct half-hardy species. August 30, 1845. 4. Abelia rupestris.* Received from Mr. Fortune, June 20th, 1844, as a fine dwarf shrub, found amongst rocks on the Chamoo Hills. A small spreading bush, with deciduous, bright green foliage. The branches are very slender, covered with fine down, and deep reddish brown, when fully exposed to the sun. The leaves are opposite, ovate, distantly serrated, on very short stalks, quite smooth except at the midrib on the underside, where they are closely covered with short hairs. The flowers are pure white, something like those from the honeysuckle, and come in pairs from tlie axils of leaves belonging to the short lateral branches. At the base of the ovary stand 3 very small bracts. The ovary itself is slender and downy ; surmounted by a calyx of 5 obovate ciliated sepals, which are slightly stained rose-colour, and rather * A. rupestris; ramis pubescentibus, foliis ovatis distanter serratis glabris subtus secus costani villosis, peduiiculis bifloris, involucro nullo, sepalis 5 obovutis ciliatis, corolla pubescente 5-fida, staminibus exEertis.—.!. L. 6-i NEW PLANTS, ETC., membranous. The corolla wlieii expanded is half an inch long, fimnel-shaped, downy, witli a spreading border of 5 convex ovate blunt equal lobes, bej'ond whose tube extend 4 smooth filaments. The plant is distinguishable from Abelia chinensis of Brown, by its want of involucre, smooth leaves, and not trichotomous flowers ; and from tiie Abelia serrata of Zuccarini and Siebold, by its 5-leaved calyx. It has hitlierto been treated as a greenhouse plant, but will probably prove hardy enough to stand out of doors in mild winters. The soil which appears most suitable is rough sandy loam, mixed with a little peat. Being of free growth, an ample supply of water is necessary during the summer season. In winter nothing different from the general treatment of green- house plants is required. It is propagated from cuttings of young wood, in the usual way. From its being sweet scented, and the length of time it remains in flower, tliis will be of considerable importance as a green- house plant ; and should it prove hardy, it will doubtless be a good addition to the shrubbery in consequence of its flowering in autumn. August 18, 1845. 5. Cattleya Maxima. Lindley, Gen. ^- Sp. Orch., p. 116. Received from Mr. Hartweg July 2, 1842. He found it on rocks and trees near Rio Grande de Melacatos, in Equatorial America. The pseudo-bulbs are from 6 to 8 inches long, compressed, and considerably thicker at the upper than the lower end, with a few sliallow furrows on each side. The leaves are single, of the same length, very regularly oblong, and rather concave until they become old. The flowers are 7 inches across, and two in num- ber, on the end of a peduncle a few inches longer than a compressed pale green spathe ; but Mr. Hartweg reports that they are really much larger, and grow as many as 4 or 5 in a cluster. When they first expanded they were of nearly the same colour as those of Cattleya intermedia, but after some days the colour brightened and deepened till at last it was equal to that of Cattleya labiata. The sepals are lanceolate and convex ; the lateral ones twisted and turned backwards ; the dorsal one still more convex, and curved gracefully upwards from the base of the column. The petals are about 2 inches broad, spreading for- wards on each side of the lip, and after a time become beautifully painted with purple veins. The lip is about 3 inches long, un- divided ; at tlie lower half flat and channelled, so that its edges meet over the column and form a ridge thei-e ; the anterior half FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 65 gradually spreads into an oblong plate, very much curled and toothletted ; its ground colour is a very pale pink, over which is drawn a coarse network of the richest crimson veins. Along its middle a narrow yellow polished line is drawn, and forms a beautiful contrast witli the crimson veins that surround it. There is no trace of ridges, glands, or elevated lines upon any part of the surface of the lip. This requires to be treated in a similar way to the different spe- cies of Cattleya, cultivated in almost every collection : rough peat and potsherds are apparently the best materials for potting it in. During summer an ample supply of water is necessary at its roots, but as little as possible on its leaves, except in the form of steam. Mr. Hartweg states that it. requires a temperature of 75°. In winter, if the atmosphere is kept moist, very little water will be necessary for a few weeks It is a very fine addition to our orchidaceous plants, more especially should i't continue to flower in autumn. Oct. 1, 1845. 6. Weigela rosea.* North of China, Mr. Fortune. Native name " Noak- chok-whoa." " A shrub like a Philadelphus ; old stems whitish, smooth ; young ones green, slightly winged ; wings alternating with the leaves and covered with hairs ; leaves opposite, nearly sessile, elliptical, \\ inch wide, 3 inches long, serrated above, nearly smooth below, on the midrib and veins hairy ; flowers axillary and terminal, 3 or 4 springing from each axil or end of the shoot, rose-colour ; peduncles sliort with green short thread-like bracts at the base ; calyx cleft into 5 unequal segments, 3 above and 2 below, 2-lipped, smooth, light green ; corolla monopetalous, tubular ; mouth reflexed and cleft into 5 equal segments, smooth ; stamens 5, shorter than corolla, and inserted or growing to its sides ; smooth above, but hairy from the point of union to the base of the corolla ; style 1 ; stigma capitate, a little longer than the stamens ; germen inferior, rather more than an inch long, nearly sessile, and having the appearance of part of the peduncle of the flower." Such is Mr. Fortune's description of this most beautiful shrub, * W. rosea ; ramulis petiolis foliorum costis ovariisque pubescenti-hirtis, foliis brevissime petiolatis oblongis acutis acuminatisque basi rotundatis ar- gute serratis supra giabris, floribus sessilibus axillaribus terminalibusque 1-3, ovario petiolo pluries longiore, calyce pilosiusculo, corollse pubesceutis tubo obconico limbo patulo regulari laciniis rotundatis, filamentis giabris. — J. L. VOL. I. F 66 NEW PLANTS, ETC., which has reached this country in safety, is apparently hardy, has already been distributed by the Society to a limited exte-.it, and promises to take rank with the Chinese Azalea as an object of ornament. A drawing received from him represents it as forming loose clusters of from three to five flowers at the end of every little side branch, and his dried specimens show that the drawing is faithful in that respect. The flowers are rather more than an inch long, and are an inch and a half in diameter when expanded. In colour they are very like the well-known Chinese Crab (Pyrus spectabilis), pure white under, deep rose externally. The genus Weigela, which originated with the Swedish tra- veller Thunberg, has been referred by modern botanists to Diervilla, and several species of it inhabiting Japan have been published by Messrs. Siebold and Zuccarini under that name. But although in many technical characters it approaches that genus, yet it is very different in habit ; and since the seed-vessel is crustaceous, not membranous, and the seeds winged, not wingless, it seems expedient to preserve the original genus. The species now described is more like the Calysphyrum Jloridiim, also a AVeigela, and a most beautiful one, from the North of China, than any of the Diervillas of Siebold and Zucca- rini, from all « hich it differs in its very large flowers, except their D. grandiflora, the leaves of which have very long stalks and the stamens hairy filaments. Hitherto this plant has been kept in a greenhouse, but it has so much the appearance of a hardy shrub that, especially considering its flowering in the North of China in the month of April, it will probably live in the open air. 7. Pterostigma grandiflorum, Bentham, Scroph. Ind. p. 21. Hooker and Arnott, Botany of Capt. Beecheys Voyage, p. 204, t. 45. Received from Mr. Fortune, July 30, 1843, from Hong Kong, as an herbaceous plant, with blue flowers, grow- ing on hill sides and near streams. In its wild state this plant does not appear to grow more than a foot or 18 inches high; but in gardens it has become more than 3 feet high, the consequence of which is that its natural beauty has been greatly impaired. It is a perennial, covered all over with slender spreading hairs. The stems are round ; the leaves are opposite, stalked, ovate, crenated, very much marked with sunken veins, and deep green. The flowers, which are nearly as large as those of a Digitalis, and of the deep colour of Gloxinia violacca, grow singly in the axils of the leaves, than FKOM THE SOCIETY'S GAEDEN. 67 which they are considerably shorter. Their calyx appears to consist of 1 narrow green leaves, imbricated at their base, but the number varies to 8 ; they form a complete broken whorl, and may be understood to consist in part of bracts which stand close to the true sepals, and become blended with them ; of these the 3 exterior are both broader and longer than the others. The corolla is tubular, 2-lipped, with the upper lip broad, ovate, blunt, and notched, while the lower is composed of 3 smaller divi- sions placed nearly on the same plane ; in this respect however the flower varies, some of the specimens having 4 lobes in the lower lip. The usual number of stamens is 4, of which 2 are perfect and next the upper lip, and 2 stunted, of the same length but more slender, and belonging to the lower lip ; when an additional lobe appears in the lower lip of the corolla it is accompanied by an additional sterile stamen. The perfect anthers are constructed in an unusual manner ; at the end of the filament is a large globular green gland, which eventually shrinks up ; upon this green gland are planted 2 lobes of lui- equal length, bursting longitudinally. The style and stigma too are of a singular form, the former gradually widening and flat- tening upwards till it ends in a thin broad plate which curves forward and forms a stigma on its anterior edge. This species has been treated as a stove plant, but will pro- bably prove hardy enough to stand in a greenhouse. It appears to grow freely in almost any sort of soil, especially sandy peat. In summer an ample supply of water is necessary, and shading in sunny weather. In consequence of its being subject to damp off in winter, it will require to be kept rather dry for a few weeks. It is very easily multiplied from cuttings in the usual way. Should this species flower abundantly, it will be a good addition to our stove plants. Sept. 8, 1845. 8. Brassica Chinensis, Linn. Received from Mr. Fortune, Nov. 23, 1844, as the Shanghai oil plant. It is grown over the whole country round that city for oil. Stems slightly glaucous, two or three feet high, not much branched, quite smooth. Lower leaves on long stalks, cordate- ovate, slightly running down the petiole ; upper leaves am- plexicaul ; all of them blunt, and perfectly undivided. Flowers bright yellow. Calyx smooth, erect. Pods 2^ inches long, arranged in racemes 1 \ foot long, rather compressed ; valves with many longitudinal meshes for the veins, and a slightly F 2 68 NEW PLANTS, ETC., prominent dorsal line ; terminated by a point about half an inch long. Seeds in a single row, spherical, the size of mustard, deep purplish brown, about the colour of ill-ripened turnip seed, with scarcely any pungency when bitten. These pods are produced in very great abundance, and each contains about 30 seeds. It is a hardy annual which will grow freely in almost any sort of soil. The seed should be sown in April, in a sheltered situa- tion, then in May the plants may be planted out where they are to remain, allowing 2 feet between each plant. This appears to be of no importance in a horticultural point of view. It may be cultivated by farmers for feeding cattle, or it may be grown for the same purpose as it is in China. Aug. 22, 1845. 9. Indigofera decora.* Received from Mr. Fortune, May 1, 1845. A dark-green handsome bush, with somewhat glaucous branches. The leaves are pinnate in from 2 to 5 pairs and an odd one, quite smooth on the upper side, but slightly covered on the under side with very fine liairs, attached by their middle ; the leaflets are exactly ovate, with a short bristle at their ejid, between \^ and 2 inches long, of a very dark green colour ; and to each pair there are two short bristle-like stipules. The flowers grow from the axils of the leaves in horizontal racemes much shorter than the leaves themselves ; they are of a light rose colour and very liandsome. The calyx is a flat membranous 5-toothed cup, with the two upper teeth very far apart. Tlie standard of the corolla is oblong, nearly flat, very sliglitly keeled behind, nearly white, but pencilled with delicate crimson lines near the base ; in length it is equal to the wings and keel, and forms with them an angle of about 45° when expanded ; the wings are narrowly lanceolate and ciliated, of a pale bi'iglit rose colour ; the keel is rather paler, and bordered with a woolly or very downy upper edge. It is a greenhouse plant which will grow freely in almost any sort of soil, especially sandy peat. In summer an ample supply of water is required, and air at all times when the weather is favourable. To prevent the leaves from being scorched by the sun, it will be necessary to use shading. In winter water should * /. decora ; fruticosa, glabra, glaucescens, foliis pinnatis, petiolis 2-5-jugis exacte ovatis obtusis cum mucrone subtiis pilis spar.sis peltatis obsitis, racemis densis foliis duplu brevioribus, calyce piano membrauaceo 5-deutato, vexillo oblongo, carina; margine superioie villoso. — J. L. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEISr. 69 only be given when tlie soil becomes dry. It strikes freely from cuttings under ordinary treatment. This is a good addition to our greenhouse plants. Aug. 18, 1845. 10. SiLENE ScHAFTA, S. G. Gmelin, in Bulletin Mosqn., xii. 397 ; Walpers' JRepertorium, i. 276. Transmitted by Dr. Fischer, from the Botanic Garden, Dorpat ; and from M. Vilmorin, Paris, in April, 1844. This proves to be a beautiful little herba- ceous plant, producing a great number of spreading slender downy stems, which form compact tufts, and are terminated near the extremity by 4 or 5 bright purple flowers more than an inch long. Of these flowers that at the extremity of the shoot opens first, and those below it one after the other in suc- cession, so that the branches are by degrees covered all over with blossoms. Its stems do not rise above six inches high, and render it well suited for bedding out, or for cultiva- ting among collections ofalpines, or for rock- work, over which it will bend gracefully. It appears from the work of Walpers that this species inhabits rocks on Mount Keri- dach, in the Russian province of Talysch. It is a hardy perennial, which grows freely in any light rich soil. It is increased by seeds, which are produced freely, and flowers from the end of June to October : the young plants from seed will not bloom before the second season. 70 NEW PLANTS, ETC., This species must be regarded as a very handsome little plant, and very desirable on account of its blooming profusely and for a long time in the autumn. Sept. 19, 1845. 11. Statice Fortuni, Lindley in Bot. Register, t. 63, 1845, Sent from Chinchin by Mr. Fortune ; found growing in sandy soil near the sea. This is a plant with the manner of growth of the Tartarian Sea-Lavender. The root is perennial. The leaves are all radical, glaucous, spathulate, with 3 principal veins, about 5 or 6 inches long. The stems in their wild state are not more than 8 or 9 inches high ; but when the plant is produced in a green- house, they become as much as 2 feet high. They are bright green, much branched, angular, and entirely leafless. A few of the lowermost have occasionally no trace of flowers : the latter grow in short, close, one-sided racemes. The bracts are oblong, convex, bright green, with a broad membranous margin ; each produces about 3 flowers. The calyx has pale green ribs and a white plaited border. The corolla is bright pale yellow, consists of 5 emarginate petals joined at the base into a very short tube, and projects a little way beyond the calyx. It will probably prove a hardy perennial, and if so, it will be very suitable for bedding out in a flower garden. When grown in pits or frames, it becomes drawn and unsightly, but if planted out in sandy peat, it does not seem to grow above a foot high. It will doubtless be abundantly multiplied from seeds. Aug. 26, 1845. 12. Calystegia pdbescens.* liaised from a small portion of the root found in a dead Pseony root, in Box No. 22, from Mr. Fortune's mission in China. The box was sent from Shanghai, and stated to contain a plant of the double Convolvulus, which was supposed to be dead when received at the Garden in June, 1844. This curious plant approaches very necirly to the C. sepium or larger bindweed of our English hedges, from which it diflPers in * C. pubescens ; caule volubili pubescente, foliis oblongis acutis hastatis pubescentibus lobis baseos angulatis, pedimculis angutosis unifloris, bracteis ovatis ciliatis margine reflexis. — J. L. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 71 having firmer and smaller leaves, much narrower bracts, and a fine pubescence spread over every part. It is the first plant of its order that has been mentioned as producing double flowers. They are about as large as those of a double Anemone, but the petals are arranged with the irregularity of the Rose ; they are of a pale very delicate pink, and remain expanded for some days. The calyx is quite unchanged. The exterior petals are very much lacerated and irregular in form ; those next the centre are narrow, drawn together into a kind of cone ; the next central are completely concealed by those without them, and diminish till they are mere scales, analogous to those which may be found in the first buds which burst in the spring. Not a trace can be found of stamens or pistil. 72 NEW PLANTS, ETC., It is probably quite hardy if planted in a dry sitiiation. It re- quires a rich loamy soil, and is easily increased by the roots. The roots very much resemble those of the common bindweed (Calystegia sepium). It flowers freely in July and August. It is a very handsome climbing plant, with large double flowers, which are produced freely. Sept. 19, 1845. 13. The Shanghai Han-Tsi. This was received along with the following variety from Mr. Fortune, wlio states on the packet of seeds collected at Shang- hai, that it is " probably ditterent from the Chusan variety, not appearing to grow so strong." This has proved to be the case ; and although it can only be considered a variety of that next to be mentioned, yet it is much inferior. The leaves are smaller and more pointed, and the plant seeds more abundantly. It may, perhaps, improve by cultivation : or, as it seeds plentifully, it may prove hardier after repeated sowings ; other- wise, it ought to give place entirely to the Chusan variety. 14. The Chusan Han-Tsi. Seeds of this vegetable were dispatched in a letter sent by Mr. Fortune, dated Chusan, September, 1844, and received at the Garden January 9th, 1845. Mr. Fortune states that it is "a vegetable used as spinach by the Chinese. This variety grows strongly, and ought to be sown in beds or rows rather thinly." It proves to be the Amaranthus oleraceus of Linnaeus. Stems erect, from 2 to 3 feet high, channeled, pale green ; branches nearly round ; leaves oval, cuneate at the base, 3 to 4 inches broad, and 5 to 6 inches long when well-grown. Petioles slender, 2 to 3 inches in length, of a still paler green than the stems. Flowers axillary, crowded, pale green. It requires to be grown in a very rich light soil and a rather moist temperature of about 60°. If proper accommodation can be afforded the seeds may be sown at any time, and the leaves will be fit for use in two months after. Some plants were put out in June, on a warm border, but did not succeed. At the first gathering, the tops may be cut off, and fresh leaves will be thrown out, but they will be smaller than those first produced. A few leaves of sorrel improve the common spinach. The Han-tsi possesses in itself a very slight but agreeable acidity FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 73 Tlie Chusan Han-Tsi. 74 NEW PLANTS, ETC., which renders the above addition unnecessary. It is to be re- gretted that it is not yet sufficiently hardy to succeed out of doors ; but it can be easily cultivated in pits or in pots in any forcing house, and thus afford an additional variety to the culi- nary list even in winter. 15. Rhynchospermum jasminoides. Lindley. Collected at Shanghai, by Mr. Fortune. This is a slender climbing evergreen shrub, rooting along its branches, wherever it touches a damp surface, like ivy. When wounded, its branches discharge a milky fluid. The young shoots are slightly downy ; the leaves opposite, oval, deep green, quite smooth, sharp pointed, with minute scale-like glands in FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 75 the place of stipules. The flowers are white, deliciously sweet scented, and produced in small irregular corymbs on the ends of peduncles considerably larger than the leaves. Their calyx consists of 5 narrow smooth convex sepals, rolled backwards, and much shorter than the tube of the corolla, with a very shallow toothed glandular ring surrounding the base of the latter. The corolla is about three quarters of an inch long, pure white, salver-shaped, contracted in the middle of the tube, with a par- tially spreading border, whose 5 divisions are wedge-shaped, truncate, and twisted obliquely. The anthers are 5, arrow- headed, placed just within the orifice of the tube, and separated by 5 slightly elevated hairy lines. The ovary consists of 2 separate carpels, and is surrounded by 5 oblong green emarginate hypogynous scales, which sometimes are slightly united at the edge. The structure of this plant is not precisely that of the genus Rhynchospermum as given by M. Alph. De Candolle, for the scales beneath its ovary are not ex- actly united into a cup. But they are partially so j and as there is no other difference as far as can be ascer- tained from the plant in a state of flowering only, it may be referred to the genus. In habit it is more like an Aganosma, but its corolla has not the tapering lobes of that genus, nor do the nectary or stigma cor- respond with it. Aug. 5, 1845. 16. Sedum Kamtchaticum, Fischer and Meyer, hid. Semi- num in Horto Petropolitano, Walpers' Repertorium, ii. 262. Received from Dr. Fischer, in June, 1 844, and said to have been collected by Dr. Schrenk on the Chinese limits of the South of Soongaria. This is a handsome herbaceous plant, with bright yellow flowers like those of Sedum Aizoon, which it much resembles in habit. The leaves are obovate and toothed at the upper half only, but they narrow in a wedge-shaped manner to the base. They are red edged, and the stem has also a strong stain of that colour ; most of them are alternate, a very few only near the summit being opposite to each other. It is a hardy perennial, requiring a light soil and dry situation. It is easily increased by cuttings any time during the summer or autumn, and flowers from June to August. A. Hypogynous Scales and Pistil of Rhynchospermum jasminoides. 76 NEW PLANTS, ETC., It proves to be a fine showy plant for Rockwork, where it blooms freely and remains long in succession. Sept. 19, 1845. 17. Ophiopogon prolifer.* Received from T. Lewis, Esq. of Penang, July 12, 1844. This is an evergreen herbaceous plant, with a slender stem slowly rising by means of roots which its leafy stems tlirow out, in the manner of a screw pine. The stems are not thicker than a swan's quill, and bear at intervals clusters of bright-green sword-shaped leaves, which curve downwards and are longer than the flowering stems. The latter are bright purple, and bear in an interrupted manner a few clusters of nearly sessile small white obovate flowers, whose texture is between fleshy and spongy. In this species the stamens are united in a very short fleshy ring. The ovary is very thin skinned, and adheres, but does not grow, to the perianth. In each of its 3 cells stands a pair of fleshy ascending anatropal ovules. The style is pyramidal and termi- nated by 3 small point-like stigmas. It is a stove plant, which appears to succeed well in rough sandy peat. During summer an ample supply of water is ne- cessary ; also a very moist atmosphere, at a temperature of not less than 80° by day. In winter it requires to be treated almost like an orchidaceous plant : if a humid atmosphere is kept up, little or no water will be required for a few weeks. It appears to be an abundant flowerer, and is of some interest to those who delight in curious stove-plants. Oct. 1, 1845. 18. Graellsia saxifrag^folia, Boissier, Ann. Sc. Nat., xvii. 172. Cochlearia saxifragsefolia, De Cand. Sys., ii. 370. Obtained from the Dean of Manchester in April, 1844. The seeds were collected on the Mountains of Persia, by Th. Kotschy, and received as a species of Cabrera. This is a little plant, with long-stalked kidney- shaped or roundish leaves, very coarsely notched, and smelling strongly of garlic. The flower-stems are about nine inches high, and bear * O. prolifer: rhizomate radicante scandente, foliis recurvatis glaberrimis ensiformibus racemis spicatis interruptis lon^ioribus, bracteis ovatis margine membranaceis floribus obovatis sublouffioribus. — J. L. FROM THE SOCIETY'S GARDEN. 77 a comjiound corymb of small white flowers resembling those of the common scurvy grass. It has not produced any fruit. It is a hardy perennial, growing freely in any good rich garden soil, and well suited for planting on rockwork. It flowers in July and August, and is easily increased by dividing the old plants in autumn or spring, or by seeds : the plants raised from seed will not flower before the second season. It must be considered a good hardy plant for rockwork, and rather showy, as it flowers abundantly. I Sept. 19, 1845. h MEMORANDA. Destruction of Insects. Shore's Remedij. — Mr. E. C. Shore,* who was recommended to the Society as a person in possession of the means of destroying insects, was permitted to experiment on various plants in order to test the efficacy of the sub- stances which he employed. Every facility was afforded him ; but he found that success did not correspond with his expectations, for the plants were killed or greatly injured in many instances, although the insects were not. The red spider on peach trees was killed, but the shoot died next day. The turnip flea was not killed by a powder sprinkled over the plants. — Robert Thojipson. In the Hothouse Department eight common plants of various sorts were selected. The substance was used in a pounded state, and the plants were dusted over with it; also dissolved in water and applied' with a syringe. This was done by Mr. Shore in my presence. In a few hours after its appli- cation, if strong enough to kill the insects, it destroyed the plant also. In every case it proved a failure. — James Donald. Chamovnle, for destroying scale on plants, has been tried, at the recom- mendation of Sir C. M. L. Mouck, Bart, F.H.S. The Chamomile in a green state was suspended among the branches attacked by the scale ; but no altera- tion could be perceived, nor was the least effect produced upon the insects. To ascertain whether or not Chamomile water possessed the power of destroy- ing scale and other insects on plants, the Chamomile was infused in boiling water, and when cold applied to the plants with a syringe. No difference could be perceived. No scale was destroyed. — James Donald. Corrosive Sublimate, to destroy aphides and other insects. — -This was dis- solved in water, and applied to the plants with a syringe. The insects were killed instantaneously ; but, when the solution was made strong enough to kill insects, it destroyed the plants also. — James Donald. Naphtha, Whisk;/, Oil, as remedies for the scale.— These substances were all tried separately to dift'erent plants ; applied with a camel-hair brush, and * The following was the advertisement circulated by this person : — " The Proprietor is in possession of the means for the certain Destruction of the above noxious Worm, and other Insects, whicli so often blight the liopes of the Agriculturist, by tlie very heavy loss occasioned to tlie green crops, both VVlieat, Turnip, Cabbage, &e. The "Proprietor having made various experiments with most respectable individuals, is confident the prepara- tion will perform that which lie has above stated, and that the quantity of 1 cwt. mixed with double the quantity of Sand or light Mould, to the Acre, will be all that is required." 78 MEMORANDA. used in similar quantities. The leaves and branches which were thus dressed with oil perished in a few days ; those to which naphtha and whisky were applied were apparently uninjured. Oil destroys both scale and plants; whisky and naphtha destroy mealy bug while in an active state, but has no in- fluence over the eggs of the insect. — James Donald. Spirit (f Wine, to destroy scale, mealy bug, &c., has been tried. The spirits were applied to the plants with a camel-hair brush. In twelve hours afterwards the part where the spirits had been applied became a brown spot, and if they were diluted with water so as not to injure the plant they had no effect on the insects. This mode of destroying insects cannot be applied with safety ; if strong enough to destroy them, it also destroys the plants. — J^MEs Donald. Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. — Some plants were put into a close box in which the gas was given off. Ten plants of different sorts were subjected to this treatment; some were dry when put in, others wet, but all were well syringed with soapsuds immediately after they were taken out. It was found by experiment that six hours produced the same effect as forty-eight. In every case the insects were destroyed, but the following table shows that this process is injurious to the plants. I Time in the Box. Pelargonium . . . Ditto .... Dodonaea triquetra . Echiuocactus . . Primula sinensis . . Ditto .... Bletia sp Jasminum Sambac . Mammillaria discolor Caniia indica . . . Opuntia ferox . . Euphorbia splendens Dormant Growin" Dry Wet Dry Wet Drv Hours. 48 12-1 12> 12^ Dead when taken out Died in three weeks afterwards No l)ad effect* could be seen for a few weeks, then It gradually rotted off Dead when taken out Very much injured Dead when taken out Meyer's Composition. — A Composition for destroying cockroaches and other insects was sent to the Garden by Mr. G. H. Meyer, its inventor. The substance in every respect resembled pounded gum arable. It was, accord- ing to the directions of Mr. Meyer, laid down at night in dry places which the insects frequented, and taken up in the morning. It is impossible to say whether or not any insects tasted it. When exposed to a humid atmosphere, it became like gum ; moths, beetles, woodlice, ants, &c., &c., were found to live for days in a vial beside it. The experiment was a failure. — James Donald. Hereman's Dilutium. — A small vial containing a liquid " Vegetable Dilutium," for destroying mealy bug and other insects, having been sent to the Garden by Mr. S. Hereman, its iuventor, the following trials were made with it. According to his directions, the liquid was applied to the plants with a camel-hair briish, and when thus dressed they were well syringed with pure water. The plants on which it was tried were Berberis tenuifolia, Olea fragrans, Epidendrum cochleatum, and Mammillaria gracilis. In a few days after its application Mammillaria gracilis died, and all the other plants were more or less injured. In every case the mealy bug was killed, and also many of the white scale, but apparently none of their eggs, as they appeared as numerous as ever in a few weeks afterwards. — James Donald. MEMORANDA. 79 Kyle's Liquid. — A liquid for destroying mealy bug and other insects, in- vented by Mr. Brown, Chemist, Layton, having been sent to the Garden by Mr. John Kyle, the following trials were made. As recommended by him, the liquid was applied with a camel-hair brush to Begonia undulata, Epiden- drura cochleatum, and a Mammillaria. The plants were apparently unin- jured. In every case the insects were killed. — James Donald. A Composition for destroying scale on pines having been sent to the Gar- den by Robert Dymond, Esq., whose gardener was the inventor, the follow- ing trials were made with it. The composition, being like black paint, was diluted with water, according to the donor"s directions, and applied to the plants with a brush. Not having pines to operate upon, common stove and greenhouse plants were substituted. The plants were rendered unsightly until the old leaves dropped off, the substance being of such a nature as not to wash off by syringing with clean water. The young leaves soon became covered with scale like those which were dressed with the liquid. In this case very few of the insects were killed ; and although they had been de- stroyed, the remedy proved worse than the disease. — James Donald. Spirit of Wine, in the form cf vapour, has been tried to destroy scale and other insects on plants. The plant experimented upon was put into an empty water-tub, and covered up close to retain the steam ; a small vessel full of hot water was placed beside the plant, over which a cup was placed containing the spirit. In this operation six hours seem to be about the time required. The quantity of spirit should be in proportion to the space in- tended to be filled. For a common water-tub, if the spirits are good, a wine-glass full is quite sufficient. Several Orchidaceous plants have been cleaned by this process without being in the least injured. — James Donald. The Black Pine Beetle. (Hi/lurgus piniperda.) If a small portion of sulphur is dusted over the young shoots of pine-trees infested with this insect, it prevents the beetle from eating the centre out of the young shoots ; but it requires to be applied two or three times in the season, particularly after heavy rain. It preserves the young shoots from the ravages of the Hylurgus without in the least injuring them. — Geo. Gordon. Transmission of Bulbs froji India. Bulbs, experimentally prepared for a voyage to England, were received from India by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, and sent to the Garden for examination. One half of the bulbs were simply wrapped in cotton and packed in brown paper, while the other portion (of the same kinds of bulbs) was encrusted in a kind of white wax, and covered with cotton like the others. When received at the Garden, in June, 1844, those bulbs which were simply packed in cotton and brown paper had emitted roots on the journey, and the tops in most cases had grown considerably, while those coated with wax remained quite firm and as fresh as when first packed ; although, according to the statement on the outside of the parcel containing them, they must have been confined in the wax three months. The bulbs transmitted in cotton began to grow first, but soon showed symptoms of debility ; while those sent in wax did not move much before a month after they were potted, but then they grew strong and healthy. In one or two cases the bulbs perished in the cotton, while the same kind packed or coated in wax survived the journey. — Geo. Gordon. Asphalted Flower Stakes. It having been stated that Seyssel Asphalte would prevent dahlia and other 80 MEMOKANDA. stakes from decaying under ground, the following experiment was tried. Stakes thoroughly dry, and consisting of birch, elm, ash, hazel, &c., were coated with boiling asphalte suificiently high up to allow for one foot being above the surface of the ground. The portion of the stakes just above the ground soon began to decay, and by the end of the season all were quite rotten. This application proves injurious. Some of the stakes treated as above mentioned, and not driven into the ground, rotted iu the same manner. That portion of the stake which is under ground and covered with tlie asphalte decays faster than when driven into the ground without any such prepara- tion. — Geo. Gordon. BURNETTIZED LiNEN. Some coarse canvas which had been Burnettized, so as to be guarded from injury by damp, had been prepared as a shading of a hot-house ; but in con- sequence of the heating apparatus in the house being insufficient, the shading was used as a covering in winter as well as a shading in summer. Other shad- ings which had not been Burnettized were used at the same time for the same purpose. In twelve months the Burnettized canvas became so rotten as scarcely to bear its own weight when drawn up. As to durability, no differ- ence in this case could be perceived between canvas which had been Burnet- tized and that which had not. — Jas. Donald. Mb. Hoare's Vine Columns. Growing vines, according to Mr. Hoare's plan, as published in his work on the cultivation of the Vine in the open air, is there stated to be a mode which, from its simplicity and economy, and its easy practical adoption, re- commends itself most especially to the notice of a vast class of persons who are not in possession of any of the usual methods of culture. The mode is further said to be based on two important principles connected with the growth of the vine. The first of which is, that a body of substances or materials, enclosed in hollow brickwork erected on the surface of the ground, will nourish and support the roots of a vine inserted therein, as eifectually as it would do were the materials placed heloiv the surface of the ground. The second principle is, that the roots so enclosed will strike upwards and grow as freely in that direction as they will doivnwards or horizontally in mate- rials beneath the surface of the earth. Numerous inquiries with regard to this mode having been made by visitors to the Garden, it was ordered by the Garden Committee that it should be properly tried. Accordingly, two hollow circular columns were ei'ected on a square base of brickwork, above which the columns were raised 5 feet high ; their diameters being each 3 feet. These columns were for holding materials for the roots, and for circularly training the vines. They were filled with Ume-ruhhisli, broken bricks, char- coal, and bones of half-iuch description : these four substances were in equal proportions, well mixed, and then soaked with the drainings of a cow-house. In March two healthy vines, one the Black Prince, the other the Koyal Muscadine, were taken out of pots and planted with the stem pi'otruding through a circular opening iu the second course of bricks from the base. A piece of old woollen-cloth steeped in soap-suds was placed under and over the roots ; a portion of the materials was then filled in, and the remainder when the full height of the columns was attained. In short the whole pro- ceeding was in strict accordance with the letter of Mr. Hoare's instructions. The result was, neither of the plants pushed into leaf, and both died in the course of the summer. — Kobert Thompson. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. XI. — On the Injluence of Electricity on Vegetation. By Edward Solly, F.R.S., F.L.S.," Hon. Memb. Royal Agricultural So- ciety, Experimental Chemist to the Horticultural Society, etc. [Communicated by order of the Chemical Committee, Dec. 1, 1845.] The powerful influence which Heat and Light exert on vege- tation might naturally lead us to expect that Electricity, the third great form of physical power, would also produce some effect on the growth of plants, and play an important part in the economy of vegetation. This idea has for the last hundred years been a favourite one with naturalists, and many experi- ments have from time to time been made with the view of ascertaining its truth. The following pages contain brief accounts of the most important of these investigations. Attention was first drawn to the influence of electricity on growing plants about the middle of the last century, just before the beautiful discoveries of Dr. Franklin proved the identity of lightning with ordinary electricity of friction. Everything con- nected with the effects of this extraordinary power was at that time of great interest, the recent discovery of the Leyden jar having attracted general attention ; and, accordingly, the effects of electricity on vegetation were examined with eagerness by electricians in all parts of Europe, and led to much animated correspondence and discussion. The earliest experiments on the subject recorded appear to be those of Dr. Maimbray, of Edinburgh, made in the autumn of 1746 ; he electrified two myrtles during the whole month of October, and found that they put forth small branches some inches in length, and even came into blossom — an effect which did not happen to other myrtles which were not electrified, and he consequently attributed the phenomenon to the influence of electricity. At this time M. I'Abbe Nollet, one of the most distinguished of the French electricians, being occupied with ex- periments as to the effect of electricity on the passage of fluids in capillary tubes, and on the rate of evaporation from various organic substances when under the influence of electricity, was struck with the importance of Dr. Maimbray's experiments, and was accordingly led to repeat them himself. In the preceding year (1745), M. Boze, Professor of Physique at Wittemberg, had observed * that water issuing from a vessel in minute drops * Memoires de I'Acade'mie des Sciences, 1745, pp. 119, 133. VOL. I. -^ G 82 ME. SOLLY ON THE would pour out in a continuous stream when the vessel was electrified. The cause of this curious phenomenon was investi- gated by Nollet, who found that although a much larger quan- tity of fluid appeared to issue from the aperture when electrified than had previously done, yet in truth, except wlien the tube was very minute, the velocity of the stream was hardly at all accelerated. Whilst occupied with these experiments, he heard of those made at Edinburgh by Dr. Maimbray, and consequently naturally thought that the effects he had been studying in capil- larj"^ glass tubes might have some connexion with the circulation of the sap in plants, and hence produce the increased growth which had been observed by Maimbray. His first experi- ments were made on fruits, green plants, and moist sponges, which, after careful weighing, were electrified for four or five hours, and then weighed again ; he invariably found that evapo- ration had been considerably augmented by the action of the electricity. He next proceeded to electrify seeds and young growing plants.* In October, 1747, he took two small wooden bowls filled with exactly the same kind of earth, and in all re- spects alike, and sowed with similar mustard seed ; forty-eight hours afterwards the one bowl was placed in connexion with the electrical machine and electrified for six hours, whilst the other was kept in the same room, but at a distance from the machine ; after two days several of the seeds in the electrified bowl had come up, whilst no alteration had taken place in the other ; the following day, nine of the electrified seeds had come up, none of the non-electrified seeds ; and this superiority was kept up, the bowl being electrified every day for more than a week, when the plants in the former were ten inches high, those in the latter not more than a quarter of an inch. This experi- ment he repeated, and varied in diflferent ways, by taking other seeds, &c. ; the same results were always obtained. The elec- trified plants, however, generally appeared rather weaker than those which had not been electrified. In England, the experiments of Maimbray appear to have ex- cited less interest. A paper by Mr. Browning was read before the Royal Society, in 1747, on the effects of electricity on vege- tables,! in which he describes his own experiments as well as those of a Mr. Baker, who electrified a myrtle at the Duke of Mon- tague's, at Ditton ; but their observations are entirely confined to the divergence of the electrified leaves, and the beautiful appear- ance of the aura proceeding from the points of the leaves when * Memoires de TAcad^mie, 1748. — Recherches sur I'Electricite, 1749, p. 342. t Phil. Trans., 1748. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 83 seen in the dark : besides these, no further experiments appear to have been made in Britain, but the Edinburgh experiments of 1746 were repeated and extended in France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. At the same time that the Abbe Nollet Avas making the above-mentioned experiments, and even some months previously. Professor Jallabert, of Geneva, was occupied with the same subject, and had, independently of Dr. Maimbray, arrived at very nearly the same conclusion as that naturalist. In the months of April and May, 1747,* M. Jallabert regularly electrified various plants two hours every day, exposing them to the open air after the operation, and found that all of them, and in particular a carnation, grew rapidly, and flourished remark- ably ; he however did not feel quite sure tliat the difference which he observed between these plants and others not electrified was due to electricity. The successful experiments of Maimbray and Nollet encouraged him to continue his investigations, and led to curious results. In the autumn of 1747 M. Jallabert electrified bulbs of hyacinth, jonquil, and narcissus, which were beginning to grow in glasses of water ; they were placed on cakes of resin, connected by wires with the conductor of the elec- trical machine, and kept in an electrified state for eight or nine hours a day ; those whicli were electrified grew more rapidly, the leaves were larger, and the flowers opened sooner than others not electrified. By weighing the bulbs and vessels of water in which they grew, he ascertained that the electrified bulbs gave off" more moisture in a given time than the other plants did. He also repeated tlie experiments of Nollet on mustard and cress, and obtained similar results ; and attributed all these ef- fects to an augmentation in the movement of the sap, caused by electricity, and analogous to that observed by Boze, as taking place in capillary tubes. Professor Boze, of Wittemberg, also made experiments on this subject in I747,t the results of which he communicated to the Abbe Nollet ; he electrified several diflerent kinds of plants and shrubs, the growth of which invariably appeared to be ac- celerated. Similar results were obtained the following year by the Abbe Menon, of Angers, who, in a letter to M. de Reaumur, states that by the aid of electricity he had been 'enabled greatly to facilitate the growth of oflfsets of ranunculus, even in the depth of winter. M. Nuneberg, of Stvittgard, was also occupied with experiments on the influence of electricity on vegetation : he took two boxes, each containing five bulbs, in all respects alike, * Experiences sur I'Electricit^, 8vo. Geneve, 1 748. t Comment, novus de Electric. 10, g2 84 MR. SOLLY ON THE and electrified the one box ; the plants grew far more rapidly than those in the other box ; their relative size, after eight days, being as eight to five. From this period, for more than twenty years, very few ex- periments on this subject are recorded, and we find it only oc- casionally referred to by writers on electricity : thus, for ex- ample, in 1752, Mr. J. Freke, in his curious treatise on the Nature and Properties of Fire, quotes experiments on the influence of electricity on the leaves of the sensitive plant, the irritability of which was then by many considered of electrical origin. He also hazards a few remarks on the probable effect of electricity gene- rally on the growth of plants, and on their reproduction in par- ticular, evidently considering electricity as the great moving power of animated beings, and identical with nervous influence. Priestley, in his 'History of Electricity,' 1768, after describing the experiments of Maimbray, Nollet, and Jallabert, supposes that the expense of such investigations has prevented other elec- tricians from repeating and extending them, and observes that the subject is one of great interest, and well deserving further examination. The only method by which this can be done, he observes, is by the help of a machine for pei'petual electrification, to go by wind or water ; he does not appear to have made any experiments himself, but seems perfectly satisfied with the cor- rectness of the experiments of the French and Swiss electricians. Professor Sigaud de la Fond, of Montpellier, in speaking of the effects of electricity on organised substances,* and after describing the experiments of Nollet, mentions some of his own, which had led him to the same conclusions ; he found the bulbs of hya- cinths, when electrified, grew faster and formed more healthy plants than if not electrified. The probability of electricity having a close connexion with the growth of plants is also suggested by Duhamel,t who points out the effects of stormy weather on vegetation, and supposes that electricity may be di- rectly concerned in those remarkable atmospheric changes which are observed to aflfect plants in so marked a manner. These views are still further carried out by G. Beccaria, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Turin. | He observes that electric clouds begin to appear in the spring when vegetation commences, and from time to time moisten the young plants with electric rains : this electricity of the clouds is found to increase as the season progresses, till the middle of autumn ; to be most abundant in those showers which are accompanied with lightning, after which * Traite de I'Electricite, 1771, p. 374. f Physique des Arbres, 1758, vol. ii. X Ellettricismo Artificiale, 1772, p. 283, 4. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 85 plants of all kinds are known to grow with remarkable vigour. He however attributes even more marked effects to a constant but feeble electric condition of the earth, which he conceives promotes vegetation on a large scale, just as feeble artificial electricity has been proved to do in various experiments. Simi- lar observations are also made by the Abbe Mann, 1774.* In 1773 the Abbe d'Everlange de Witry communicated to the Brussels Academy of Sciences a paper on the influence of electricity on the fluids of vegetables.f After speaking of the effect of electricity on fluids moving in capillary tubes, and quot- ing tlie experiments of Nollet and Jallabert, he expresses sur- prise that the views deduced from their results have not been more generally adopted, and attributes this to the contrary re- sults obtained from imperfect experiments on diseased or un- healthy plants ; he appears to have no doubt that electricity does affect the circulation of the sap of plants as well as that of the blood in animals, and enters at some length into the subject of its application in the cure of disease. The same year, M. I'Abbe Bertholon communicated to the academy at Beziers some obser- vations on the influence of meteors, lightning, and the rain of thunder-storms, on the germination of seeds and growth o plants. An announcement was made in 1775, by C. H. Koestlin, in his ' Dissertatio physica experimentalis de Effectibus Electricitatis in quaedam corpora organica,' that negative electricity was detri- mental to vegetation ; both animal and vegetable life being retarded by negative electricity. This appears to be the first dis- tinct observation as to the diflferent influence of negative and positive electricity, as the preceding experiments seem all to have been made with positive electricity alone. The following year M. Bertholon read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris an account of a series of experiments on the conducting power of plants for electricity, in which he showed the great differences which exist between different plants, those, generally speaking, being the best conductors which were the most succulent or contained the largest quantity of moisture. In 1779, the Count de Lacepede,| in his book on Electricity, describes some experiments which he had made on vegetables, observing that invariably, on electrifying a plant, he found it grow, or increase, with more vigour than usual, and that the germination of seeds, and sprouting of bulbs placed in water, was always hastened in a very decided manner by electricity. The * Memoires de rAcademie de Bruxelles, t. ii. p. 1, 46. t Ibid., t. i. p. 181. X Essai sur I'Electricite' Naturelle et Artificielle, tome ii. p. 166. 86 MK. SOLLY ON THE same year a naturalist in London determined to repeat the ori- ginal experiment of Dr. Maimbray,* and accordingly electrified a myrtle for many hours a day for some time, in the middle of December ; the result was that the tree formed buds, and threw out small branches in a very remarkable manner. Dr. Marat described in 1782t some experiments which he had made on the germination of electrified seeds ; from which he draws the conclusion that it exerts powerful influence on the fer- tility of the soil. Six porcelain vessels filled with moist earth, and each containing lettuce seed, were prepared in all respects alike ; three were placed in a very large glass jar well insulated, whilst the others were placed in an adjoining room also insulated. The temperature in both rooms being two degrees above the freez- ing point, and all other circumstances alike, the jar was kept con- stantly electrified seventeen hours a day for a fortnight. On the seventh day the plants began to make their appearance in the electrified vessels ; and at the end of the fortnight they were as forward as similar plants sown on the same day, but kept in a room nine degrees above the freezing point. In the three vessels which were not electrified the seeds had not begun to germinate. The next important addition to our knowledge of the electricity of vegetation was by the Abbe Bertholon. This philosopher having paid much attention to the subject, and made numerous experiments, published the results of his in- quiries in his book ' De I'Electricite des Vegetaux.'| The first subject treated of in this work is the influence of atmospheric electricity upon growing plants, which the author endeavours to prove in various ways : first showing the constant presence of free electricity in the air, he proceeds to argue that so powerful an agent must produce some efi^ect upon plants, and then goes on to describe the eflPects which are produced by lightning and other phenomena of atmospheric electricity. In these chapters the influence of electricity on the general produc- tiveness of crops is asserted, and several remarkable instances are adduced in confirmation of the author's views: thus, for example, he states, on the authority of M. Vyssery, that in the year 1780 the hops failed in certain districts, and it was observed that there was very little lightning ; whilst in the following year there was an excellent crop, and lightning was remarkably abundant : many other statements of a similar nature are also given. The great conducting power of water, its presence in the atmosphere, ♦ La Nature consideree, p. 89. t Recherches Physiques sur I'Electricite, p. 359. , j Paris, 1783, 8yo, INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 87 and in all growing plants, is then shown ; and lastly the effects produced by artificial electricity are described, and compared with those which are observed in nature. In the second part of the book, the effects produced by electricity are more mi- nutely examined. The experiments of Nollet and Jallabert are described and confirmed by Bertholon's own results ; he observed in addition, that interrupted electrification appeared to have more influence than when continued, in accelerating vegetation. On the growth of leaves and flowers, he quotes the experiments of Maimbray, Nollet, Jallabert, and also Muschenbroek, who had arrived at the same results as these philosophers. This part con- cludes with some curious chapters on the colours, odours, and tastes of fruits and flowers, on the development of which he thinks that electricity exerts a very remarkable influence. Fruits nearly ripe on being electrified were found to acquire the odour and taste of ripeness sooner than others not electrified ; and flowers or plants just coming into blossom arrived sooner at perfection, and the colours were more brilliant than is ordi- narily the case ; when plants in flower were electrified the blos- soms were observed to become more brilliant in colour, and of a richer and more delicate tint, than other flowers of the same kind of plant. All these experiments were made with positive electricity, and there is accordingly a chapter specially directed to the consideration of the effects produced by negative elec- tricity ; these are, for the most part, the reverse of those produced by positive : germination is retarded, the growth and formation of the leaves is checked, the development of fruit and flowers, and the secretion of colouring and odorous matters, is impeded ; and these effects, he states, may be observed by experiments on the small scale as well as by carefully watching the electric condition of the atmosphere on a large scale. The third and last part of M. Bertholon's book contains the practical applications of those principles which he endeavours to deduce from experiments and theoretical reasoning ; namely, the means of increasing the natural supply of electricity to plants, when it is deficient ; the means of diminishing it when too abundant ; the application of electricity in protecting plants from the attacks of those insects to which they are liable, and in pre- serving them from the effects of various diseases. For the first of these objects he proposes an instrument which he calls an electro- vegeto-meter, which consists of a well-insulated pointed con- ductor, attached to a high wooden pole firmly fixed in the ground, and well connected with a number of metallic points placed points downwards, on a suitable support above the surface of the ground, and so arranged that the series of points being connected with the upright conductor by a chain, may be carried 88 MR. SOLLY ON THE over any part of the garden or field. An apparatus of this kind he had placed in the middle of a garden, and found it produced favourable effects on the plants growing below. He says of it, " This instrument is applicable to all kinds of vegetables, to all places, to all weathers, and its utility and efficacy can only be questioned or doubted by those timid persons who are not at- tracted by discoveries ; who never enlarge the barriers of science, but remain for ever confined in the narrow boundaries of a cowardly fear which they frequently qualify with the name of prudence ; a name, however, which no longer answers their pur- pose. If I may believe my enlightened friends, the electro-ve- geto-meter is one of the most beautiful and most useful discove- ries which has been made this century." In order to increase the natural supply of electricity, he also proposes to water them with electrified water ; for this purpose an insulated stool or stand is required, upon which the gardener stands, bearing in his one hand a chain connected with the posi- tive conductor of a machine, whilst in the other he holds a syringe to throw the water into the plants to be electrified, or in place of a syringe he may merely hold a common watering-pot, and if the insulated stand be placed on wheels it may easily be so arranged tliat the gardener can supply a large extent of plants with electrified water. Lastly, he proposes to electrify the whole cistern or basin of water which serves for irrigation, by a powerful electrical machine, the cistern being lined with resin, to insulate the water. In order to diminish the natural quantity of electricity when there is too much in the air, he proposes to water the plants frequently, as thus becoming better conductors they will more readily discliarge the superabundant electricity of the air ; and secondly to place pointed metallic conductors, well connected with the ground, in the immediate vicinity of the plants to be protected. M. Bertholon attributes the increase and develop- ment of certain insects, which feed on plants, to the agency of electricity, which he says exerts the same influence upon them as upon the seeds of plants ; and accordingly proposes to kill them by an excess of electricity ; passing the shocks of Leyden jars through the trunks of trees in which the larvse of insects are deposited : this plan he found to answer well on repeated trials, and provided the shock was not too powerful, the tree was not injured. All the ordinary diseases to which plants are subject may, he thinks, be diminished, counteracted, or entirely cured by a judicious and appropriate application of electricity : after describing the modes in which this may be done, he says, " the diseases of plants are not so numerous as tliose of man ; plants ha\ e no diseases of the mind — none of those mental ills which INl'LUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 89 destroy us so cruelly. Never troubled by fear, never tormented by ambition, or devoured by ennui, without being a prey to the sad effects which arise from these evils, they fulfil their peaceful and happy destiny. The accidents which afflict them are the necessary consequences of those destructive causes with which the world is filled ; but fortunately not possessing that imagina- tion which torments us so ingeniously, and those passions which tyrannize over us, they are exempt from that numerous army of evils and maladies of all kinds which assail us on every side. They have none of those spasms or vapours, those deirliums or insanities which we so frequently create ; again, the remedies which are applied to them are more efficacious : and often by the strength and goodness of their constitution, even without the assistance of human industry, they surmount the obstacles which would have vanquished them." The number of new experimental facts adduced by M. Ber- tholon in this curious book is comparatively small, and it is easy to see that his enthusiasm and lively imagination frequently carried away his judgment, and caused him to view facts in a very questionable light whilst collecting arguments in support of his favourite views. He, however, made the first attempt to collect and arrange the electrical phenomena of nature, and the results of the experiments of electricians, in a methodical and systematic form ; pointing out the manner in which electricity may probably be the real cause of many of the unexplained phe- nomena of vegetable and animal life. Immediately after the publication of Bertholon's work, another treatise appeared on the same subject by Gardini, of Turin ; and likewise papers bearing upon the influence of electricity on ve- getation, by Achard and De Saussure. The last of these* was, in fact, little more than a favourable critique of Bertholon's book, and an expression of his own conviction that electricity is the great moving power of vegetable life — the agent which influences their development and growth. The observations of Achard are contained in several essays : on the electricity of rain, snow, and hail ; on electrifying fluids ; on germination, &c. ;"|" and likewise in papers on the influence of electricity on the growth of vege- tables, in which he confirms the results of preceding philosophers ; and on the influence of electricity in promoting the fermenta- tion and putrefaction of vegetable and animal matters. He found that both negative and positive electricity accelerated the * De Saussure, sur I'Electricite' des Ve'getaux. Eozier, 1784, ii. p. 290. t F. C. Achard, Physicalische und Chemische Abhandlungen, vol. p. 784. 90 MR. SOLLY ON THE putrefaction of animal matter, and caused barley and other fermentable substances to pass into spirit with increased rapidity.* Gardini's book, ' De Influxu Electricitatis atmosphsericse in vegetantia Dissertatio,' &c., 1784, contained similar views to those entertained by Bertholon, and some further applications of the theory to the good or bad crops of different years. He, in particular, quotes the year 1783 as being remarkable for the abundant crops obtained in all parts of Europe, whilst the previous year had been as remarkable for a deficiency : this superiority of the year 1783 he attributes to the abundance of atmospheric electricity, which was unusually strong-, whilst the preceding season had been noted for the absence of electricity. About fourteen years before. Professor Gardini had stretched across the garden of a monastery at Turin a number of iron wires, for the purpose of some experiments on atmospheric electricity. After a short time the garden, which had hitherto been remarkably productive, began to fail, the plants became unfruitful and withered away, and the monks, attributing this change to the influence of Gardini's wires, took them down ; when, after a short time, the plants began to revive again, and the garden was soon as productive as before. Gardini explained this, on the sup- position that the wires deprived the plants below of that natural supply of electricity which was necessary to their healthy growth. About this time Dr. Ingenhousz, of Vienna, had published a translation of Dr. Franklin's theory of electricity, in which he spoke rather slightingly of the views of those who attributed such great influence to electricity in accelerating the growth of plants ; and, in general, expressed his belief, after mature con- sideration, that if not altogether deceived, they had at all events very greatly exaggerated the effects of electricity on vegetation. This statement drew the attention of Professor Schwankhardt, of Vienna, who persuaded Dr. Ingenhousz to repeat with him the experiments which had led him to a conclusion so decidedly opposed to the generally received opinion ; an account of these investigations was published by Schwankhardt in 1785.| The following is an outline of them : — a piece of cork about three lines in thickness, and covered with a piece of blotting paper, was placed floating in a glass full of water, and on it were placed sixty mustard seeds ; the glass was then placed at the bottom of a cylindrical glass jar, eighteen inches high and four in diameter, coated inside and outside with tin-foil, like an ordinary Leyden * Memoiren der Berl. Acad., 1783. •j- Rozier, Journal de Physique, 1785, ii. p. 462. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 91 jar. Four of these jars were prepared, the same number of seeds being placed in each, and care being taken that they were all exposed to exactly the same circumstances, only that two were kept constantly electrified by connexion with the positive con- ductor of a powerful machine, whilst the other two were un- touched ; the seeds all came up alike, and there was no difference in the time of germination or in the size of the young plants. The same result was obtained on repeating the experiment, two being positively and two negatively electrified. Other seeds being placed on cork floating on water, and directly connected with the positive or negative conductor of the machine, ger- minated as under ordinary circumstances. These experiments were varied in several different ways, the same effect, however, being always obtained ; and hence M. Schwankhardt became convinced of the truth of Dr. Ingenhousz' observations, and agreed with him in believing that though it might probably exert some influence on growing plants, yet it was unjust to conclude that the effects described by previous electricians were due to its agency. They repeated many of these experiments exactly, with cress seeds and various bulbs, and obtained such conflicting and uncertain results that they could not come to any definite con- clusions. Amongst others, they carefully repeated M. Comus's experiment on the sensitive plant, described by Bertholon,* and satisfied themselves that the effects produced were purely mechanical, in which they were borne out by the Count de Caleppi and Professor Landriani of Milan, though the latter still continued to hold the old views respecting the great in- fluence of electricity on vegetation. f This paper of Schwankhardt was opposed by Dr. Duvarnier,| who, without adding any new facts, contented himself with throw- ing out doubts as to the accuracy of the experiments of In- genhousz and Schvi'ankhardt, referring at the same time to the numerous experiments of other electricians. Dr. Ingenhousz also published some observations on the subject, § in which he confirms the statements of Schwankhardt, repeats his own doubts of the accuracy of previous experiments, and states his belief that the effects observed by former electricians were due to the agency of light, and not of electricity. He describes experiments, in which seeds, placed on the bottom of Leyden jars sixteen inches high and seven and a-half in diameter, and compared with similar seeds equally shaded from the light, but not electrified, showed no superiority of growth whatever. These experiments, how- * Bertholon, Electricite des Ve'getaux, p. 264. t Ingenhousz, Expe'riences sur les Vegetaux, ii. p. 264. I Rozier, 1786, i. p. 98. § Ibid., 1786, i. 81. 92 MK. SOLLY ON THE ever, of Dr. Ingenhousz, so far from strengthening his position, in truth prove nothing whatever : because, as is well known, the interior of a charged Leyden jar contains no electricity what- ever ; and therefore, in placing seeds in the inside of a jar, he placed them in a situation of all others the worst for the influence of electricity on them. Electricity always tends to occupy the outer surface of substances, and consequently is found entirely on the outside of any piece of metal, whether it be solid or hol- low ; in the Leyden jars the electricity of the two coatings is powerfully drawn together, and accordingly the charge wholly exists on the surfaces of the tin-foil in contact with the glass, the outside of the interior tin-foil, and the inside of the outer foil, and this holds good whether the jar contain only air, ger- minating seeds, or mercurj', &c. ; it is indifferent what matter is placed inside the jar, the whole of the electricity is collected on that side of the tin-foil which is in contact with the glass. For this reason it is evident that Dr. Ingenhousz's experiment did not establish the points which he endeavoured to prove : his results were, however, confirmed by Sylvestre, who described a number of experiments in the ' Memoires de la Societe d' Agri- culture de Paris, pour 1791,' and by Pacts, Van Troostwyck, and Krayenhoff, in their ' Application de I'Electricite a 1' Agri- culture et a la Mt^decine.' These philosophers found no difference occasioned in the germination and subsequent growth of seeds ; or if any difference whatever was perceptible, it was in favour of the seeds which were not electrified. The first experiment which they made was in favour of the effect of electricity ; but, on repeating and varying it, they came to the same conclusion as that at which Ingenhousz had arrived. In 1788 Dr. Ingenhousz published some observations on the influence of atmospheric electricity on the growth of plants,* in which he further examines some of Bertholon's statements, and particularly witli regard to some cases of rapid growth in the neighbourhood of lightning conductors, which Bertholon had attributed to the influence of electricity. The most important case of this sort was one communicated to Bertholon by the Abbe Toaldo.j M. Quirini, some years since, had had a lightning conductor constructed at his beautiful country seat on the banks of the Brenta. This apparatus, consisting of a high pole, sur- mounted by a bar of iron which reached considerably above the roof, was placed in an angle of the walls at the back of the house, on the northern aspect ; by these walls M. Quirini had a row of * Rozier, 1788, i. p. 81. t Bertholon, de I'Electricite des Meteores, Lyons, 1787, vol. ii. p. 370. INFLUKNCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION, 93 wild jessamines planted, in order to shelter the house on that side from the action of the moist northern winds. He found, after a few years, that the two plants nearest to the lightning con- ductor had increased with most extraordinary rapidity, having reached to the roof of the house, a height of thirty feet, whilst the other trees, which were cultivated with exactly the same care, were not more than four feet high. This fact Bertholon con- sidered as a most decisive proof of the truth of his views, and as unquestionably the effect of the lightning conductor : a con- clusion denied by Ingenhousz, who contrasts it with the state- ment of Gardini respecting the monks' garden at Turin. The importance of electrical rains he doubts, because plants grow well in hot-houses where they never get any electrified water ; and besides, he remarks, the greatest quantity of atmospheric elec- tricity is not always apparent during the height of summer ; snow, in fact, being often far more electric than rain. Ingen- housz repeated Gardini's experiment with the wires across a garden, in one case covering the plants with a complete network of cross wires, but failed in observing any effect whatever on the plants growing beneath. He also connected small pointed con- ductors with a number of different trees in the garden, but found no increase in their growth in consequence; in fact, the most healthy tree of all seemed to be one to which no pointed conductor happened to have been applied. These experiments were also made at the same time by Herr van Breda, at Delft, in Holland ; he found that horizontal wires suspended over plants produced no effect on their vegetation, and a similar result attended the case of pointed conductors attached to the tops of trees.* These statements, coming from so careful and accurate a philosopher as Dr. Ingenhousz, soon brought the theory of electro-culture into complete discredit, and even some of its warmest advocates began to change their opinions : it was not long, however, before other naturalists took up the subject ; and accordingly, in the two following years we find a number of papers by different authors upon the effects of electricity on vegetation. In November, 1788, M. Carmoy wrote a letter to the Marquis de Vichi,! in which he describes a variety of ex- periments, of which the following will serve as an example: — He took three perfectly similar cylindrical vessels of tin-plate, and filled them with fine sifted dry earth, upon the surface of which he placed in each vessel three similar grains of wheat, taken from the same ear ; he then surmounted each vessel with * Voigt's Magazin fur Physik, 6, iv. 76. f Rozier, 1788, ii. p 3.39. 94 MB. SOLLY ON THE a ring of tin-plate three lines in depth ; the additional space in each was then filled up with the same sifted earth, and the whole very gradually and carefully moistened with an equal quantity of Avater : they were then all three placed on insulated stands, in exactly the same relation to light, and one being electrified posi- tively, and the other negatively, the third was left untouched. After twenty-three days the young plants were measured, when it was found that the unelectrified had grown 1 1 inches 10 lines, the positive 18 inches 5 lines, and the negative 19 inches 9 lines. A number of other experiments of the same kind are also given, the general result of which is that electricity appears to acce- lerate germination, negative electricity being more powerful than positive. Similar experiments also are described by M. Rouland,* but the results which he obtained are opposed to those of Carmoy. He electrified porcelain dishes of water, in which corks floated, supporting common cress- seed ; these were electrified both posi- tively and negatively by contact with the conductors of the ma- chine, or charged Leyden jars, yet in no case could he observe any effect produced by the electricity. A few months later M. I'Abbe d'Ormoyt published the results of a very extensive and laborious set of experiments, undertaken with a view of ascer- taining whether the objections of Ingenhousz were sound or not, and the results of his experiments appear to have corroborated those of Nollet and of Bertholon. He electrified mustard and let- tuce seed for several days in moist earth, and found their germina- tion always accelerated. Besides these he made other experiments in which seeds were electrified for some hours, and then sown and compared with other seeds which had not been electrified ; in these cases also the electrified seeds had always the start of the others, and so beneficial did he find it to germination that he says even old and dry seeds which appeared spoiled, and would not germinate, did so readily when previously electrified for some hours. Almost the same results were published by Ber- tholon at nearly the same time. J He enclosed parcels of seeds in tin-foil and kept them constantly electrified for some days before sowing, when he found that seeds so prepared germinated remarkably soon ; these experiments were made with seeds of spinach, endive, turnip, &c. He likewise describes a number of experiments in which he found seeds to germinate sooner when placed on the plate of a charged electrophorus. Professor Vassalli, of Turin, in a Dissertation published 1788, Rozier, 1789, i. p. 3. t Ibid., 1789, ii. p. Ifi9. J Ibid., 1789, ii.p. 401. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 95 endeavoured to prove that the experiments of those who electri- fied seeds or plants in deep jars were not to be depended upon, because in such arrangements evaporation would be checked : the results of his experiments were in favour of the beneficial influ- ence of electricity. In a later paper* he still maintains the same opinion, and states, as his belief, that electricity assists in giving to growing plants their green colour. The last writer of any note who published observations on this subject was M. de Rozieres, by whom there are two long and carefully detailed papers in Ilozier!s ' Observations sur la Phy- sique.'t After this the all-absorbing questions of European poli- tics seem to have diverted the attention of naturalists from the discussion, and, when the retui'n of peace allowed the followers of science to pursue their studies again, new trains of investiga- tion arose, new and brilliant fields of inquiry were everywhere opening to view, and the older and less interesting subjects of inquiry were neglected and almost forgotten. The discovery of voltaic electricity, and the brilliant discoveries which it led to, completely eclipsed the hitherto favourite study of frictional electricity. M. de Rozieres entitles his papers ' Essai sur cette Question — Quelle est ITnfluence de I'Electricite sur la Germina- tion et la Vegetation des Plantes ?' They contain numerous experiments on chervil, wheat, beans, rye, peas, mustard, radish, lettuce, trefoil, &c., the result of which was, that nearly in all cases the electrified plants came up first, grew larger, and had longer roots than the others ; " the leaves were more nume- rous, larger, and of a decidedly more beautiful green." The results of these experiments, which occupied M. de Rozieres from 1786 to 1790, confirmed the truth of the original experiments of Nollet and Jallabert, and proved that the view taken by Ingenhousz was incorrect, and that the effects in question were not results of imperfect experiments and due to the unequal influence of light, but were really caused by electricity, as those philosophers had stated. In this view he was also borne out by the experiments of Mr. Bilsborrow in 1797, who found germination decidedly accelerated by positive electricity, and still more by negative. A. von Humboldt, in his masterly ' Aphorismen aus der Che- mischen Physiologic der Pfianzen,' 1794, observes that there is hardly any problem on which the learned are more divided than respecting the influence of electricity on vegetation. He evidently himself believes that it has considerable effect on vege- * Giornale Scientifico, t. iii. f Rozier, 1791, pp. 351-65 and 427-46. 96 MR. SOLLY ON THE tation, but at the same time does not attribute to it those verj' marked effects described by Bertholon ; shrewdly remarking, when speaking of the influence of thunder-storms and electric rains on plants, that the effects observed cannot be wholly pro- duced by electricity. Senebier, in his ' Physiologie Vegetale,' 1801, after referring to the various statements of different authors, observes, that it appears to him more probable that electricity does not favour vegetation than the contrary ; he however admits that the question is by no means decided. A similar view of the subject is taken by De Candolle, whose experiments led him to attribute little effect to the action of electricity on plants. A number of experiments were made early in the present cen- tury, and shortly after the discovery of voltaic electricity, to ascertain its influence upon various organic substances ; but there appear to be no recorded experiments on seeds or growing vege- tables before 1806, when Davy published some interesting ob- servations on the subject.* He observed that seeds placed in pure water in the positive part of the circuit, germinated much more rapidly than under ordinary circumstances ; but that in the neo-ative part of the circuit they did not germinate at all. In explanation of this experiment he remarks that without sup- posing any peculiar effects from the different electricities the phe- nomenon may be accounted for from the saturation of the water near the positive metallic surface with oxygen, and that near the negative one with hydrogen ; though at the same time he does not think it impossible that some effect may be due to the elec- tricity. Davy also describes some experiments in which grow- ing plants were made the medium of connexion between the two extremities of the battery : in one case, a plant of mint was soon killed, but another, after ten minutes, remained uninjured ; lime and fixed alkali was found at the negative extremity, whilst chlorine and sulphuric acid had collected at the positive extre- mity of the battery. The experiments of Davy were received by Du Petit Thouarsf as evidence of the great influence of electricity on vegetation. He believed that plants contained two distinct galvanic arrange- ments ; one acting vertically through the woody fibres, the other horizontally through the medullary rays: to the influence of these opposite but independent currents he attributed the prin- cipal phenomena of vegetation. Observations on the influence * Philosophical Transactions, 1807. Elements of Agricultural Chemistrj', p. 37. t Essais sur la Ve'ge'tation, 1809, ix" Essai. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 97 of electricity of low tension in exciting the irritability of plants, the movement of the stamens of the barberry, &c., were pub- lished in 1812* by Nasse. The views of Du Petit Thenars on the immediate connexion of electricity and vegetation were supported by Gasc in 1813 ;t he, however, did not add any new experimental evidence of much value. The subject of atmospheric electricity, one of the most im- portant branches of the science, had attracted a great share of the attention of electricians ever since the discoveries of Frank- lin ; but although many observations have been recorded and many experiments made, yet the theory of its source, even at the present time, is very far from being complete. In 1825 M. Pouillet read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris two ]Me- moirs containing the results of his investigations into the sources of atmospheric electricity. J This philosopher proved, that during the germination of seeds a notable quantity of electricity is dis- engaged. Setting aside all consideration of the more complicated changes which take place during germination, we may consider it as a mere process of oxidation, the whole effect produced on germinating seeds by the air being the abstraction of a portion of carbon and the formation of a quantity of carbonic acid gas ; a change therefore analogous to the combustion of carbon, arifl con- sequently one which we might expect, like that, would give rise to the evolution of electricity. M. Pouillet's experiments though delicate are very simple : he took twelve glass capsules, about nine inches in diameter, well varnislied them with lac, and then placed them in two rows, side by side, on a table covered witli the same varnish ; they were then filled with vegetable earth, and well connected by metallic wires with each otlier and with the one plate of a condenser. Seeds having been sowed in the cap- sules, the apparatus was examined from time to time ; for the first two days no signs of electricity whatever were given by the gold- leaf electrometer connected with the condenser, but on the third day, when the plants began to appear above the surface of the earth, the electrometer indicated negative electricity, and this effect continued to be observed, night as well as day, for more than a week. It is evident from this experiment that electricity being set free during germination, the seeds become negative, whilst the carbonic acid given off is, of course, positive — a very important conclusion, if established ; both in respect to the source of atmospheric electricity, and likewise as connected with the * Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, xli., p. 393. Goppert, Ann. des Sci. Nat, XV., p. 72. f De rinfluence de I'Electricite dans la Fecondation. X Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. xxxv. p. 401 ; et t. xxxvi. p. 1. VOL. I. H 98 MR. SOLLY ON THE probable influence of electricity on germination. It has, however, been suggested, that as all vegetable soils contain carbonaceous matters which are continually undergoing oxidation, carbonic acid is constantly being found in the soil, under precisely the same circumstances as those under which it is found during the germination of seeds. A number of valuable experiments on the influence of electricity of low tension on germination have been made by M. Bec- querel. On causing seeds to germinate under the influence of feeble galvanic currents he observed that those in contact with the copper element of the circle grew faster, whilst those in contact with the zinc element grew less rapidly than similar seeds placed on glass ; the negative extremity increasing, the positive retarding germination. Similar results were obtained with bulbs which, were placed on small frames of zinc and copper, con- nected together in water ; those on the negative frame being found to grow sooner than those on the positive. In these experiments electricity was employed to assist in forwarding the ordinary chemical changes necessary to germination, the plants themselves being in fact regarded as acting like the negative termination of an ordinary voltaic arrangement.* The favourable influence of negative electricity of low tension on germination is attri- buted to the decomposition of saline substances, and consequent evolution of alkaline matter, which assists germination by com- bining with and neutralising the acetic acid always evolved during germination and the growth of bulbs and buds. M. Becquerel also fully considers the action of atmospheric electricity on vegeta- tion, f After observing that tlie earth and atmosphere are always, under ordinary circumstances, in opposite electric states, the equilibrium between wliich is constantly being restored by the agency of mountains, plants, and animals, he states that the clie- mical effects produced by these currents of electricity favour or retard vegetation according to their direction. In the ordinary state of the atmosphere it contains free positive electricity ; the plants therefore are negative, and consequently must manifest an acid reaction on their surface ; and hence, under these circum- stances, the electricity of the atmosphere must facilitate vegeta- tion by assisting the vital force. In the consideration of this part of the subject M. Becquerel also inquires into the influence of electricity on the phenomena of endosmose and exosmose — • effects of heterogeneous affinity, dependent on the attraction of two different fluids for each other, and their power of wetting and * Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, lii. p. 240. f Traite Experimentale, iv. 157 — 210. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 99 penetrating the pores of the substance which separates them. The interesting experiments of Porret and Dutrochet are de- scribed, and the conclusion drawn, tliat thougli electricity is one of the causes of these plienomena, it is not the only one, because the effects produced are often in the opposite direction to what would be the result of mere electric action. It appears evident that M. Becquerel does not acknowledge any influences of elec- tricity on vegetation, except those which it produces in facilitat- ing or retarding chemical action. Among those who have devoted much time and attention to the study of electricity, and its influence on vegetation, the names of Mr. Pine and Mr. Weekes ought not to be omitted. Numerous papers by these gentlemen on the conducting power of vegetables, the nature of vegetable points, the relation of vege- tables to charged clouds, &c., are contained in the proceedings of the London Electrical Society, and in various journals. In the spring of 1843 great interest was excited by the state- ment which then became current, that a discovery had been made of a means of collecting the natural electricity of the atmosphere so as to increase vegetation in a most extraordinary manner. The statement on which this account was founded originated with Dr. Forster, of Findrassie, Elgin ; who, having stretched certain wires in particular directions over a crop of barley, had observed a most luxuriant vegetation produced. About the same time accounts of some American experiments were circulated, from which it appeared that equally extraordinary effects on vegeta- tion had been produced by the influence of feeble currents of voltaic electricity. The account given by Mr. Gordon at the Tring Agricultural Association, in 1844, of Dr. Forster's experiments at Findrassie, was briefly as follows. A portion of a field of Chevalier barley, measuring twenty-four poles, was enclosed by a parallelogram of iron wire, sunk about three inches below the surface of the soil, and so arranged that its longest dimensions were north and south ; in tiie middle of tlie two shorter sides, and therefore, due north and south, poles were fixed about eleven feet high; and over these was stretched another iron wire, well connected at either extremity with the shorter sides of the buried parallelogram of wire. Besides this, two smaller plots of ground in the same field, of eight poles each, were enclosed in the same manner, only the poles were much lower. In all these squares a very marked effect was observed : the young barley was remarkably dark in colour, and grew very rapidly. In the two smaller squares this effect gradually went off, but in the larger parallelogram with the higher poles, it continued to harvest-time ; the enclosed barley being considerably finer, larger, and more healthy than the rest n 2 100 MR. SOLLY OX THE of the field. It wa^, however, noticed to turn yellow rather later than the unenclosetl part. At a later period, when the barley had been threshed and weighed, the results of the experiment were announced. It was stated that the return had been at the rate of 104 bushels or 14 quarters per acre, not including the tail corn, and 9300 lbs. of straw. But in the accounts of these results which appeared in the newspapers, no comparative statement accompanied them of the crop yielded by the other parts of the field, which was merely de- scribed as being "a lawn recently laid down with Chevalier barley and grass."* Very great interest was excited every- where by the account of these experiments, and they were repeated in all parts of the countiy in the following spring. Amongst other places, a series of experiments on this subject were made at the gardens of the Horticultural Society, of which a sliort account will immediately be given. Amongst the earliest experiments on the influence of galvanic electricity on growing plants, appear to have been some described in July, 1844, by Mr. W. Ross, to the Farmers' Club at New York ; at least these experiments were quoted in all firming journals and newspapers, and certainly were the cause of a great number of similar experiments being tried. Mr. Ross stated that, having planted some seed-potatoes in drills, he buried at the one end of these rows a copper plate, five feet long and fourteen inches deep, and connected it by a wire with a zinc plate of the same di- mensions, also buried, but two hundred feet distant, being at the other end of the rows. On the 2nd of July some of these pota- toes were dug up and found to be two and a half inches in dia- meter, while the rows on either side, which were not under the influence of the galvanic current, had not formed tubers of more than half an inch in diameter. This statement, like that of Dr. Forster, excited very great interest. The ordinary sources of electricity are the friction or contact of dissimilar substances, chemical action, heat, and magnetism ; and almost all the cases in which electricity is evolved may be arranged under one or other of these four heads. According to the mode in which it is evolved, the properties of electricity vary considerably, and accordingly it is usual to divide electric effects into two great classes, those which are produced by electricity of quantity, or voltaic electricity, and those produced by electricity of intensity, frictional or machine electricity ; the properties and effects of these two great divisions are different in many very important points : it will therefore be right in considering their * Agricultural Gazette, 1844, 741; 184.5, 249. INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 101 influence upon plants, to separate the effects of the one from those produced by the t>ther, though the two are most intimately connected together. That electricity of tension should produce some effect on growing plants might certainly be expected from its known povrers ; and that it does in nature exert considerable direct in- fluence upon the growth of plants is more than probable, though certainly not to the extent wliich some of the older electricians imagined. There are three ways in which electricity may be supposed to act upon plants — chemically, mechanically, and as a stimulant. Atmospheric electricity, it is well known, occasions the formation of nitric acid in the atmosphei'c, and this effect may probably be produced by some of the more quiet forms of elec- tric discharge, as well as in thunder-storms ; it may, and in fact no doubt does, assist in the formation of certain matters essential to the growth of plants, as well as to the decomposition of various compounds in their structure. If we adopt the view which many considerations have of late years strengthened and confirmed, tliat chemical action is but a modification of electricity, we may say, with strong plausibility, that the growth of plants, the de- composition of carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, &c., is a mere electrical effect ; but in this case the negative and positive elec- tricity evolved by these molecular changes is not set free in an independent or current form, but neutralise each other at the moment of evolution. The moving power of these changes is generally stated to be light, or " vital energy " under the influ- ence of light ; but the true nature of the relation which exists between chemical action, light, and electricity, is far from being yet understood. The mechanical effects of atmospheric electricity on vegetation, such as augmenting exosmose, endosmose, and evaporation, «fec., can hardly be very important, though, being constantly in ope- ration, they may in the end have considerable influence on plants. The stimulating effects of electricity, or rather the question whe- ther electricity does possess any stimulating effects on plants, is a serious and important subject of inquiry, and one well deserving in- vestigation. There appears little evidence to prove that plants pos- sess any nervous irritability analogous to that of animals — a fact for which we might be prepared by the absence of any organs corre- sponding to nerves ; yet there are many curious facts connected with the irritability of certain parts of plants, the influence of external agents on the circulation of the fluids of plants as evinced by the movement of solid particles in the cells, which very closely resemble electric effects, and can better be explained on electrical grounds, tlian on any other. What connexion may exist between 102 ME. SOLLY ON THE electricity, and the so-called vital energy of plants, remains still involved in obscurity, and, in fact, constitutes one of tlie most curious problems of vegetable physiology. These observations of course apply only to growing plants ; the influence of free electricity on tlie germination of seeds is quite a different con- sideration : in electrifying seeds sown in earth, as in electrifying those in Leyden jars, or wrapped up in tin foil previous to sowing them, we really do not at all place them under the influence of electricity, because we only electrify the outside surface of the vessels in which tliey are placed, the surface of the soil, the coats of the Leyden jar, and the outside of the tin foil in which tliey are enclosed. Although it is the custom, in ordinary language, to speak of negative and positive electricity, as tliough they were two dis- tinct kinds of power, yet it must always be remembered that tlie terms are merely relative, and that whenever we have any sub- stance charged with the one, other substances in the neiglibour- hood either are, or tend to become, in the opposite state ; which conditions remain, until either by conduction or by other means the mutual neutralization of the two is efifected. Tlius, under ordinary circumstances, the surface of the earth and plants growing in it are negative, whilst tlie air is positive ; and this condition is perpe- tually being destroyed by the slow but continuous discharge which is always taking place. Hence therefore the effects of frictional electricity are divided into those of statical, and dynamical elec- tricity, or those which are due to the mere proximity of masses of matter in opposite electric states, and those which are due to the act of neutralization of those opposite states. In the case of galvanic electricity, or electricity of quantity, it is quite different ; the effects produced by it are all those of dynamic electricity, and, as the source which produces it continues, so the effects themselves are continuous : galvanic electricity, or as it is some- times termed current electricity, is always produced in a circuit, which indeed is a necessary condition to its being evolved, and to its producing those effects which are peculiar to it. Current electricity may be excited in a circle of conducting matter by chemical action occurring at one part of the circle, by inequality of temperature, or by magnetic induction. Of the first case we have an illustration in the ordinaiy voltaic battery, where elec- tricity is evolved by the action of zinc upon water ; of the second case we have an example in thermo-electric piles, where elec- tricity is developed by the unequal temperature of the joints of a compound series of two different metals ; and of the third we have a beautiful illustration in the magneto-electric machines, where a rapid succession of electric currents is produced by the INFLUENCE OF ELECTEICITY ON VEGETATION. 103 successive formation and destruction of a magnet by induction, vk'liich in turn induces in a wire bound round it corresponding- electric currents. The eftects of current galvanic electricity on vegetation may be supposed nearly identical with those of frictional electricity, as the chief effects of the latter have been described as being- produced by it in its dynamical state ; and hence the consider- ation of this form of electric power resolves itself rather into a consideration of its sources as regards vegetation. The obser- vations already made, witii respect to the close connexion between chemical action and electricity, apply to all forms of current electricity, whetlier of frictional or galvanic origin ; such cur- rents are constantly being formed both by the gradual neutrali- zation of atmospheric electricity, and also by the chemical changes continually going on in the soil and in the organs of growing plants. We may now proceed to inquire in how far the plans proposed in England and America for the application of atmosplieric and galvanic electricity are calculated to assist vegetation ; consider- ing, firstly, in how far they are adapted to the object in view, and, secondly, whether tlie eftect desired, if obtained, is likely to promote the growth of plants ? From some of the statements which arose out of Dr. Forster's description of his original expe- riments, it was evident that a very indefinite conception was entertained of the mode in which such an apparatus could act, some seeming to imagine tliat the wire, in consequence of its re- lation to the axis of magnetic power in the earth, would be in the same position as a wire in the vicinity of the pole of a magnet, and that consequently a current would be established throughout the entire length of the wire ; whilst others viewed it merely as a means of discharging or collecting the free elec- tricity of the atmosphere. When a magnet is moved in a certain position to a circle of wire, an electric current is generated in the wire, or, if the magnet be kept stationary whilst the wire is moved, the same effect is produced ; and by extending this prin- ciple, and moving a portion of a wire circle so as to cut the lines of magnetic influence of the earth, an electric current may be obtained ; but of course in this case, as with an artificial magnet, either the wire or the magnet must be moved ; if both are stationary, or, what is the same thing, if both are moved at the same rate and in tlie same direction, no current can be produced : hence we see at once that, upon tlieoretical reasons, we cannot expect any current to be generated by induction in a wire sus- pended above the surface of the earth, with the intention of cuttins: its line of magnetic force ; and the truth of this is more- over borne out by experimental evidence, as no current whatever 104 ME. SOLLY ON THE is found to be generated in a wire of any length suspended in any direction. The only way then in which we can regard such a wire as acting, is in equalizing the electricity of the earth and atmosphere, either assisting in neutralizing the opposite electric states of the earth and air, which, when highly dissimilar, may possibly be hurtful to vegetation, or as discharging electric clouds and fogs, and thus bringing down moisture from the air. If the former be our object, it may be certainly more con- veniently attained by other means; whilst, for the latter object, much more elevated wires would be requisite except in veiy barren places, or countries where there are no trees, which of course would interfere with the action of wires near the earth. The arrangement proposed, for the application of galvanic currents to growing plants, is one in which, provided it acts, a feeble current Avill constantly pass across the roots at right angles to their axis of growth : such an arrangement therefore could hardly assist them in a chemical point of view, but could only be expected to aid them, and that in a very imperfect manner, as a stimulant ; the plant next the one plate miglit pos- sibly be assisted in its growth by the gradual decomposition of saline matters in the soil, and consequent evolution of substances either directly or indirectly favourable to vegetation, but the plant at the other end would probably be proportionably injured, whilst the intermediate ones would be neither benefited nor in- jured, unless the electricity in passing across the roots could stinuilate or augment their energy. In the arrangement first proposed, where plates were buried at either end of a row of plants, the electricity would tend to pass from the zinc to the copper through the best conducting part of the soil, and this would naturally be the moistest : the current therefore would pass at a considerable distance below the surface of the ground, and below the roots of young plants altogether. In the experiments on these subjects made in the Horticul- tural Society's Gardens, it was not thought necessary to repeat exactly the arrangement described by Dr. Forster ; the more so, as numerous repetitions of his experiments were being made in various parts of the country ; amongst others, one by Mr. Jes- sop on his Grace the Duke of Devonshire's estate, within half a mile of the Gardens. In this experiment Dr. Forster 's original statement was fol- lowed as closely as possible. The field was eleven acres, sown with barley, and the portion enclosed by the parallelogram of wire was half an acre. The wire was of iron, and the poles were rather more than fourteen feet in height. No perceptible difi'erence was at any time observed, either whilst growing or at harvest time, between the enclosed part and the rest of the field. INFLUE^■CE OF ELECTKICITY ON VEGETATIOX, 1U5 In order to ascertain the effect which would be produced by effecting a complete metallic communication between the earth and the atmosphere, a small plot of ground was prepared for bai'ley. The soil having been well levelled and raked smooth, stout copper wires were sunk four inches below the surface pa- rallel to each other, and twelve inches apart, over the whole of the ground, and at either end a bright clean wire was placed across all the others, the ends of which were firmly attached to the two end cross wires, by being twisted round them : towards either end of the square of ground a pole 33 feet high was fixed, bearing at its upper part a large star of fine-pointed copper rods, each 30 inches long, well connected with the wires buried in the soil by stout wires attached to the poles. When thus prepared, another similar piece of ground was treated in the same manner, no wires or poles being employed, and both then sown with bar- ley, which was dibbled in, in rows six inches apart ; in the one plot the plants being left free and untouched, whilst in the other every row of grains was close to a copper wire connected with a system of ten bright points raised 33 feet above the surface of the ground — an arrangement which would certainly rapidly neu- tralize any difference between the electrical state of the earth and atmosphere. The barley all came up at the same time ; it was very closely watched during its growth ; the crop was quite alike, and in both plots was small, and at no time was any dif- ference whatever observed in the appearance of the two little fields. A small field of potatoes was divided into four beds, by a path of six feet wide between each, four rows being in each bed ; two of these were employed in experiments with wires, one was left untouched for comparison, and the fourth was devoted to an experiment with buried plates. Over one bed a number of thick copper wires, 12 feet long, pointed at both ends, were suspended by means of well-tarred lines of packthread, at such a distance above the surface of the ground that the lower points of the wires were about a foot above the soil, the upper points being a foot above the string to which they were attached. A row of wires was suspended above each row of potatoes, which were three feet apart, and the wires in each row were about four feet from each other. This arrangement was intended to assist in the neutra- lization of the opposite electricity of the soil and air, the plants being part of the discliarging system. In the second bed, wires well connected together were placed on either side of the sets, buried about six inches below the surface of the soil, and connected with a third wire, stretched a foot above it, just over the line of sets, and Ijearing a series of pointed wires, a foot long, attached throughout its length, at distances of twelve inches apart, which therefore hung downwards towards the young plants. During 106 MR. SOLLY ON THE the growth of these beds of potatoes no difference whatever was perceptible at any period on the most careful and rigid compari- son. Towards the ripening of the tubers, those in all the beds were attacked by the prevailing rot ; it took them comparatively late, and but slightly ; this effect, however, was not peculiar to those which were the subject of electric experiments, as there was no difference between them and the standard bed. The tubers were taken up in the middle of October, when the fol- lowing was the produce of the respective rows. Each row was fifty feet long. standard. Long pendent Buried and short wires. wires. 1 89 lbs. 104 lbs. 92 lbs. 2 62 73 80 3 87 88 65 4 101 93 96 Mean ... 82 89 81 The difference between the three beds was very small therefore, and quite within the ordinary limits of accidental difference, because, though it is true that the mean of the second bed is rather higher than either of the others, yet we see that even in that bed tlie produce of the four rows varies as much as 31 lbs., whilst in the third bed it varies 31 lbs., and in the standard 39 lbs. The re- sult of this experiment therefore, like that with the barley, appears decidedly opposed to the idea of atmospheric electricity exerting any strong influence on the growth of plants under ordinary cir- cumstances. In order to ascertain the effects of feeble galvanic currents on the germination of seeds and subsequent growth of young plants, the following experiments were made : a slip of zinc plate, 2 inches by 6, was connected by a wire with a plate of copper of tlie same size, and placed in the earth, the edges just appearing above its surface, at a distance of eight inches ; eighteen grains of barley and the same number of wheat were then sown in two straiglit lines between the plates, and a similar series were also sown close by, without any plates ; all other conditions were as like as possible : the result of this experiment was — 5tli Day. 6th Day. Tth Day. 8th Day. Plates. Without. Plates. Without. Plates. Without. Plates. Without. Wheat .2 8 1 12 7 18 18 Barley .5 3 18 15 18 18 18 18 In another similar experiment with twelve seeds of wheat alone, in which the plates were buried below the surface, and placed horizontally edge to edge, with little more than a quarter of an inch between their edges ; on the sixth day ten had come up between the plates, and but six without thera. These experi- ments, however, though they certainly seemed to confirm the INFLUENCE OF ELECTKICITY ON VEGETATION. 107 popular statement, were unsatisfactory, as being on too small a scale, and consequently very liable to mislead ; it was therefore thought right to commence an extensive series of similar experi- ments, on a considerable variety of plants ; for this purpose 140 smaU beds were prepared, and in every alternate one there were sunk a couple of metallic plates, one zinc and the other copper, 4 inches deep and 5 broad, connected together by a. piece of stout copper wire, and so placed that about half an inch of each plate was visible above the surface of the ground, at a distance of six inches apart. The beds were arranged in rows, the alternate ones of each row having plates, whilst the intermediate ones were left free as standards of comparison ; thus the first bed of the first row had plates, the first of the second row had none, and was kept as a standard ; the second bed of the first row was kept as a standard, whilst the second of the second row had plates, and this alternation was kept up throughout the whole series, in order to guard against any eflects Avhich might possi- bly be subsequently attributed to the peculiar position of any one row, as compared with the others. Immediately after put- ting in the plates, the whole sum of little beds was sown with seventy ditferent sorts of seeds ; as nearly as possible the same number of seeds being sown in eacli couple of beds, and the same covering of mould being given in each case ; all other circumstances were alike. The experiment was watched from day to day, and the number of plants which came up, noted down. The following table shows the result of these experiments. The seed was sown at the latter end of May. First week. Second week. With Stand- With Stand- plates. ard. plates. ard. Remarks. Flanders spiuach 2 9 10 21 Against. White Alphange cos lettuce 11 8 18 18 No difference. Malta lettuce 15 21 15 21 Ditto. Green Paris cos lettuce 20 27 28 27 Quite equal. White Paris cos lettuce 49 117 50 120 Against. Green-topped white carrot . , 20 25 Rather against. Long scarlet radish 9 8 18 15 Rather in favour. Early rose-coloured radish 8 8 13 15 Quite equal. Short-topped scarlet radish 12 8 17 10 In favour. Long rose-coloured radish 23 9 39 20 Ditto. White Silesian sugar beet , . , . 1 4 No difference. Red-leaf beet , , , . 5 4 Ditto. Portugal cabbage 17 23 52 55 Equal. Yellow savoy 4 3 11 9 Ditto. Pomeranian cabbage 8 8 22 18 Ditto. Large green savoy 28 8 41 20 In favour. Chappel's broccoli 2 3 21 24 Rather in favour. Knight"s protecting broccoli 1 2 11 9 No difference. Yellow Vertus onion 1 Quite equal. Spanish onion .. .. 2 1 Rather against. 108 ME. SOLLY ON THE Auvergne pea Knight's tail marrow pea Early dwarf Dutch kidney bean Belgian black kidney bean Sinapis pekinensis Yellow Malta turnip Long white early turnip Normandy curled endive Green purslane Golden purslane Scorzonera Salsify Cauliflower Red Castelnaudary beet Windsor bean White-flowered vetch Rye Talavera spring wheat Chevalier barley Oats Wheeler's imperial cabbage Round spinach Campanula Medium Lupinus nanus Dianthus splendens Phacelia tripinnatifida Gilia achilleajfolia Papaver amoenum Gilia tricolor Calandrinia speciosa Eutoca viscida Glaucium rubrum Leuca;ria senecioides Sweet William Lupinus pubescens Leucanthemum panicula- tum Godetia viscosa CoUinsia tricolor Godetia bifrons Clarkia elegans Linaria Perrozii Schizanthus pinnatus Malva mauritiana Godetia albicans Crepis Drummondi Papaver amoenum Collomia coccinea Callichroa platyglossa Gilia tricolor splendens Clarkia pulchella Total seeds up First ' sveek. Second I week. With Stand- With Stand plates. ard. plates. ard. Remarks. 3 3 4 8 Rather against •• •• 2 2 No difference. .. 3 3 In favour. , . . . 8 10 Against. 53 57 61 71 In favour. 94 58 94 79 Rather in favour. 46 39 48 40 No difference. 16 14 25 20 Quite equal. 5 11 32 62 Ditto. 40 23 81 38 In favour. 5 12 Against. .. 4 4 No difference. 6 14 9 34 Against. , , , , 9 9 No difference. 4 3 Against. . , , . 4 8 Ditto. 12 6 12 8 In favour. 7 3 13 15 Against. 3 5 14 16 Equal. 3 8 7 Ditto. 24 24 41 37 Ditto. , , , , 7 3 In favour. .. ^ , 2 17 No difference. 9 2 15 11 In favour. , , , , 5 2 No difference. , . , , 8 5 Ditto. 12 ^ , 22 3 In favour. , , , , 5 3 No difference. 27 40 60 70 Against. . , 10 1 No difference. 13 10 25 25 Quite equal. , , , , 14 2 No difference. 3 6 8 27 Against. 60 16 90 26 In favour. •• •• 2 3 No difference. .. .. 3 6 Ditto. 10 *8 18 15 In favour. , . . , 42 25 Against. 22 30 22 50 Ditto. , , , , 38 7 In favour. , , ^ , 7 1 No difference. 30 10 53 Against. 6 4 Ditto. 10 20 12 19 Equaf. 37 6 48 15 In favour. 4 4 4 10 No difference. 90 61 101 110 Ditto. , , 8 10 Equal. . , .. 48 50 No difference. •• •• 11 28 Against. 818 7.52 1579 1522 INFLUENCE OF ELECTRICITY ON VEGETATION. 109 The remarks in the last column show the appearance of the two patches as favouring or opposed to the view of electric influence, that is to say, the comparative vigour of the plants with the plates and those without. It will be observed in the first place, that the number of seeds which came up was, generally speaking, very similar — in 6 cases the numbers were equal, in 32 the standard squares were most forward, and in the remaining 32 those with the plates were most numerous. Again, on comparing the appearance of the plants, in 18 cases the plates seemed to have done harm, in 17 cases good, and in 49 cases to have produced no effect at all. The plants were allowed to grow up, flower, and form seed, but no marked effects or differences greater than those usually observed in sowing different portions of seed, even in the same ground, were at any time remarked. Pairs of zinc and copper plates were also buried at either end of some rows of potatoes ; the fourth bed of the experiment already described was employed for this purpose ; the plates were 24 inches by 12, and were connected together by stout copper wires, rather more than 50 feet long, which were suspended about three feet above the surface of the soil. Only three of the four rows in this bed were thus arranged ; the fourth had wooden uprights at the ends, and a wire stretched along its whole length like the three others, but no zinc and copper plates were buried at the ends. The plants were frequently and carefully compared together, but at no time could any marked difference whatever be observed between the four rows, or between them and the plants of the standard bed. When tlie plants were fully grown, it appeared that these four rows were a little taller than the standard ; but the difference, if real, was very trifling indeed — certainly not more than wliat might be expected from the natural inequalities of the soil. The yield of these rows was — Wire only. 108 lbs. Standard. Buried plates. 1 2 3 4 89 lbs. 62 lbs. 87 lbs. 101 lbs. 96 lbs. 82 lbs. 67 lbs. Mean . . . 82 lbs. 81? lbs. The conclusion to be drawn from these experiments is, upon the whole, opposed to the supposition of the great influence of electricity on vegetation ; or at least, that the electrical effects produced by such apparatus as those described have very little, if any, influence on the growth of plants ; and from these and other experiments made during the past year, I am led to believe that a great part, if not the whole, of the effects recently described as electrical, are accidental or due to adventitious causes. 1 10 MR. THOMAS MOOUE ON THE XII, — On the Ventilatiori of early Forcing-houses. By Mr. Thomas Moore. (Commimicated Oct. 20, 1845.) There is scarcely a more important matter connected with gardening than the ventilation of forcing-houses during the winter and early spring months ; and perhaps there is hardly any operation upon which less definite notions seem to a very great extent to be entertained. There can be no doubt that tlie admis- sion of cold air in any considerable quantity during the period referred to, is more likely to cause injury than advantage to the plants ; nevertheless we generally find the most unguarded recom- mendations given in reference to this very operation ; " Admit air freely" — "Give air on all favourable opportunities," and similar instructions are commonly to be met witli. These directions are, to a certain extent, correct ; but a consideration of the pur- pose for which air is admitted will be enough to show that they are far too unconditional and indefinite, as change of the internal air of a forcing-house or of any other plant structure is efiected for one of these purposes, — either to allow superfluous moisture to pass away, to carry off gaseous impurities, or to regulate the temperature. The first of these is not a valid reason for the admission of air luider the circumstances referred to, because whatever excess of moisture tliere may be, in the heated atmosphere maintained in these structures, must have been artificially supplied; and the proper remedy therefore is clearly not an admission of fresh air less charged with moisture, but a more judicious course in regu- lating the supply of moisture.* It is to effect this purpose, chiefly, that green-houses and all plant structures, where a tem- perate climate oidy is maintained, require to be ventilated in winter and the early part of spring. The second reason given for the admission of air ought not to afford an excuse for indulging in tlie practice to any extent dur- ing tlie period referred to ; for, in the first place, under proper management, no impure gases sliould be generated ; and, se- condly, if this were the case lo a small extent, the expansive nature of the atmosphere and the natureof such structures would together secure a change sufficient to prevent any damage from this cause. The Wardian case gives sufficient evidence that plants will grow even in an atmosphere much closer tlian that * " One of tlie causes of success in the Dutch method of winter- forcing is, undoubtedly, the avoiding the necessity of winter ventilation by intercepting the excessive vapour that rises from tlie soil, and which would otherwise mix with the air." — Theorij of Horticidhtre. VENTILATION OF EAKLY FORCING-HOUSES. Ill of any forcing-house, provided it is kept pure and properly ba- lanced with regard to moisture. When smoke flues were used as the medium of distributing artificial heat, the admission of air for this purpose might have been required on account of the sulphurous acid gas transmitted through the bricks ; but the present almost universal use of hot water for this purpose, by doing away with the source from wlience the air became impregnated with impurities, has also removed the necessity of admitting air for the purpose of purification. If this be correct, then the regulation of temperature may be considered as the only legitimate reason for opening forcing- houses during the period under consideration. An excess of heat is injurious to all plants, and to forced plants, growing at an unnatural period of the year, even more than to tliose whose growth is affected during their ordinary and natural period of action. But it is necessary to distinguish between natural and ar- tificial heat — between the heat of the sun and tliat of a hot-water apparatus. In the former case, when the temperature of the con- firmed atmosphere has been raised to what is judged to be the maxi- mum point which may be allowed without injury to the plants, yet tlie heat being inevitable, and its source uncontrollable, the act of ventilation becomes justifiable ; but, in the latter case, when the excess of heat is altogether artificial, while ventilation is equally necessary as in the former case to correct the evil, it is by no means so justifiable, inasmuch as a little management of the source whence the supply was derived would have altogether pre- vented its necessity ; and hence it is (the action of cold air on the tender tissues of forced vegetables being excessively injuri- ous) that the proper course, so far as concerns the health of the plants, is to avoid the application of so much heat as renders the admission of air for lowering the temperature an act of necessity. There does not appear to be good reason for the admission of cold air simply for the purpose of lowering a temperature that has been artificially raised too high : how much more consistent as well as economical to apply only as much heat as is necessary ! besides, such a course would preserve the plants from risk of injury by exposure to cold. But there is another evil attending this practice. Cold air drains the moisture, first from the warmed atmosphere and then from the plants themselves ; so that the constant admission of cold air and the maintenance of that degree of humidity which is judged necessary for excitement and support of vegetation (the growing shoots of a vine, for example) are circumstances quite incompatible with each other. Air, at a given temperature, can hold in suspension but a certain degree of moisture, and as it becomes heated its capacity for moisture is increased ; thus, when 112 MH, THOMAS MOOEE ON TUE the cold air which has been admitted becomes warmed by con- tact with the heated air of a plant-house, its capacity for moisture is increased, and it will draw the moisture from the surrounding volume, until the whole is brought to a state of equality : if this goes on long enough the moisture of the atmosphere becomes dis- sipated, and that contained in tlie tissues of the plants becomes acted on in a similar way. A considerably higher temperature may be indulged in, when accompanied by a corresponding degree of moisture, than would be safe were less moisture employed ; so that the application of moisture in the form of impalpable vapour may often be the raeaus of avoiding the necessity of admitting air when the tem- perature becomes suddenly raised by sun heat. Although the admission of large volumes of cold air is in- jurious to forced plants in the winter and early spring, yet as some degree of ventilation is required, it is of importance that what air is admitted may be so far under control as not to affect injuriously the tender plants, for whose benefit it is intended. One means of effecting this is to have the cold air vvarnied before it comes in contact with the plants, but this must be by a process which will not deprive it of its moisture, nor render it in any way impure. Motion of the intei'nal volume is another condition of im- portance to the plants, and though distinct from ventilation, is nevertheless a very valuable auxiliary and substitute for it when the latter cannot be ventured on. This motion may be secured in a variety of ways by modification, and tlie principle of the plan adopted by the late Mr. Penn of Lewisham for warming buildings, and to which the Polmaise plan of heating is very )iearly allied, differing more in detail than in principle. In a little book * on the culture of the Cucumber, published in 1844, I recommended the warming of the external air before admitting it to the plants, by a plan which will be explained by the annexed diagram (A). The main point which this plan was intended to secure was this ; that the cold air should pass directly over the surface of the heated water in a tank provided for supplying bottom heat to the cucumber plants ; and by passing over this surface, it was supposed that it would not only be warmed, but so far charged with moisture as not to abstract any from the succulent foliage and stems of the plants, but rather to furnish them with a source whence they themselves might draw part of their supply. This plan was entirely unconnected with any scheme for securing * Theory and Practice applied to the cultivation of the Cucumber in the ■winter season. VENTILATION OF EAELY FOllCING-HOUSES. 113 motion without admitting the external air; but it is obvious that both might be combined, as in the following diagram (15), which also represents an improvement upon the original plan. cr^i A ^ „ .1 1 ! 1 1 1 U In this arrangement it will be seen that the cold external air is supposed to pass through a heated chamber separate from the tank, but admitting of communication for the purpose of supply- ing moisture, if necessary. Thus the external air may be warmed VOL,. I. 1 114 VENTILATION OF EAELY FORCING HOUSES. either with or without being moistened before it reaches the plants inside the houses ; or the moisture may be directly ad- mitted from the tanks by other means, in the exact quantity required at any particular stage of growth. The advantage gained by this plan is a greater command over the moisture of the atmosphere ; though in a forcing-house such a power would seldom be required to be put into practice. Another mode combining internal motion with ventilation, and by which the cold air is warmed before it reaches the plants, has been practised with very marked success during the season of 1845, in a vinery at Park Hill, Streatham, under the direction of Mr. Dodemeade, gardener to William Leaf, Esq., F.H.S. This plan consists in passing a zinc pipe, thickly perforated vfhh small holes, from end to end of the vinery, and exactly beneath the range of hot-water pipes which heat the structure. In the outer wall, communicating with this perforated pipe by means of a kind of broad funnel, a register valve is fixed by which the admission of air can be regulated with tlie utmost nicety, or the supply be shut oflT altogether : tliis valve is fixed a little below the level of the perforated pipe. The action of this contrivance was evident enough from the motion communicated to the foliage of the vines ; and its effects were apparent in the unusually healthy and vigorous appearance they bore, until their period of ripening. In this case, suflficient moisture was kept up by syringing the walls and pipes, wetting the pathway, and by the use of evaporat- ing troughs placed on the metal pipes, and kept constantly filled with water. XIII. — A Note upon the Wild State of Maize, or Indian Com. By the Vice-Secretary. When Maize was first noticed by writers on Rural afl^airs it had already acquired the name of Turkic Corn, Corn of Asia, Spanish Corn ; and hence it was thought to have had an Asiatic origin. Parkinson, who wrote in 1640, even fancied that it might be the Bactrian corn mentioned by Pliny.* But Gerarde gave a more correct history of its introduction : — " These kinds of Grain," he says, " were first brought into Spain, and then into other provinces of Europe ; not (as some suppose) out of Asia Minor, which is the Turk's dominions, but out of America and the Islands adjoining, as out of Florida and Virginia, or Norera- * " Tradunt in Bactris grana tantae magnitudinis fieri ut singula spicas nostras sequat."— (/fts<. Nat., lib. xviii., c. 7). VICE-SECRETARY ON THE WILD STATE OF MAIZE. 115 berga, where they used to sow or set it to make bread of it." He adds, " Wee have as yet no certain proof or experience concern- ing the vertiies of this kinde of corne, although the barbarous Indians, which know no better, are constrained to make a vertue of necessitie and think it a good food." — {Gerarde''s Herball^ by Johnson, p. 83, Edition 1636.) Hernandez, in 1651, produced conclusive evidence of the American origin of this kind of corn ; for in his account of the Natural History of Mexico he gives a figure of it, and states that its Mexican name is Tlaolli ; and that of a beverage made from it, AtoUi* Hernandez, however, gives no account of the wild state of the plant, nor does any other author that I liave been able to meet with ; and therefore a communication from Mr. M. Floy, of New York, acquires considerable interest. In a letter, addressed to the Secretary, he makes the following statement : — " Last year I received from the Rocky Mountains a few grains of Native Indian Corn, which I consider to be the original corn. Its appearance is remarkably different from the cultivated varieties, each grain being covered with a husky glume. I planted it last spring, where no other corn could come in con- tact with it. I raised only two or three ears, which were of the same nature as those placed on the top of the ear of the corn received. I observed a grain or two which was but little covered with husk, the produce of which is almost like our common corn, showing that from its wild state two or three yeai's of cultivation would bring it into its present form." This supposed wild form of the Maize is so interesting as to deserve an exact account of it. Three ears were received, of which the smallest was eight inches, and the largest a foot in length. They resembled Indian corn when very young, while the chaff or husks of the flowers still cover over the grains : but the grains were plump and ripe, and there was no sign of imma- turity. In one of them a small number of grains near the point of the ear were peeping through the chaff or husks, or perhaps it would be more correct to say, that near the point of one of the ears the chaff had already begun to diminish in size and to shrink back from the grains. The accompanying' figures will show more clearly the difference between the wild and cultivated corn. Fig. 1 is the former, in the upper part showing the appearance of the ear before it is cut open, and the lower, the grains enveloped in large leafy chaffs. * M. Kunth {Eimmeratio plantaruiu, i. 19) states that Maize is wild in Paraguay, upon the authority of M. Auguste de St. Hilaire ; but I do not find mention made in the works of that author of his having found ]Maize in a ■wild state. I 2 116 VICE-SECEETABY ON THE WILD STATE OF MAIZE. Fig. 1, Fig. g. VICE-SECREIARY ON THE WILD STATE OF MAIZE. 117 Fig. 2 repres^ts the corresponding appearance of an ear of the large white variety commonly cultivated in the United States : its grains are not at all larger than those of the wild corn, but its chaffs are reduced to little membranous half-transparent scales, which are entirely concealed by the protruding grains. It is also curious to remark, that cultivation has at the same time produced another effect, the centre of the ear having become large an 1 firm while the chaff has diminished : as if the deterio- ration of the latter had caused the enlargement of tlie former ; a somewhat important fact, when it is considered that the centre of the ear of Indian corn is itself a receptacle of nutritious matter. Upon measuring off their parts, the following appear to be their respective proportions : — Width of Centre. Length of Grain. Length of Chaffs. Wild Corn . 4 lines 4 lines 1 1 lines Cultivated Corn 9 lines 4 lines 2 lines To those who are acquainted with the changes which our cul- tivated esculents have in some cases also undergone, this new fact will probably show that it is by no means to be expected that such plants as corn and fruit-trees shoidd be recognizable in a wild state ; and that it is quite possible that the wild type of some of our domestic fruits may lurk beneath disguises hitherto impenetrable. Indian corn adds, moreover, another example to that of the Carrot, which was completely domesticated by M. Vilmorin in tliree generations (See ^Horticultural Transactions,^ new series, vol. ii., p. 348), showing that in some plants the progress of im- provement under cultivation is so rapid that they begin to change their form perceptibly from the moment when they are first brought under the dominion of man. XIV. — Some Accomif of the Jefferson Plum. By Mr. Robert Thompson, Superintendent of the Orchard and Kitchen- Garden Department, in the Society's Garden. ( With a Coloured Plate?) This is an American variety of the highest excellence. It was presented to the Society, in 1841, by Mr. .James Barnet, who obtained it for his nursery at Edinburgh from Mr. Wilson, nurseryman. New York. It fruited for the first time in the garden of the Society last season, an unfavourable one for plums and fruits generally. Nevertheless, the variety in question was found to possess so much merit as to render a drawing of it de- 118 MR. THOMPSON ON THE JEFFERSON PLUM. sirable from a specimen, produced on a standard, to which the rest on the tree were very similar. It appears from Mr. Downing's ' Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America,' recently published, that the Jefferson Plum was raised by the late Judge Buel, and that the original tree was growing in his garden near Albany. The judicious author of the above- mentioned work says, " If we were asked which we think the most desirable and beautiful of all dessert plums, we should un- doubtedly give the name of this variety.*' No one can read this statement without recollecting the well-known excellence of the Green Gage, and questioning whether, in point of flavour, it can possibly be equalled by the variety under consideration To say that the Green Gage under the most favourable circumstances for acquiring perfection would be surpassed, might prove an exaggeration. That remains to be determined. In the mean time it can be stated that in the past unfavourable season, in wliich only tliere has been an opportimity for comparison, the Jefferson was found decidedly superior to the Green Gage. Fruit large, roundish- oval ; stalk about an inch in length. Skin dark yellow, remarkably speckled with purple and brownish red. Flesh deep orange, slightly adhering to the stone, juicy, exceedingly rich and sugary. Stone middle sized, elliptic. Ripe in the third week of September ; but in ordinary seasons it will probably attain perfection about a fortnight earlier. The tree appears to be a great bearer as a standard. Shoots smooth, or but partially and very slightly downy, of an upright growth. Leaves middle sized, elliptical, glabrous above, serrated or acutely crenated. In rich soil, or against a wall, where it well deserves to be placed, this variety would doubtless attain a much larger size than is here represented. It will afford a later supply than the Green Gage ; for it has the property of hanging for a consider- able time on the tree after being ripe. In strongly recommend- ing it for extensive cultivation, the circumstance of its having proved so good in a cold wet season like the past is not to be overlooked ; it leads to the inference that the tree may be advan- tageously cultivated in situations where many hitherto known varieties cannot acquire any tolerable degree of flavour. What fruit can be worse than bad plums? The most effectual means of driving such out of cultivation is the introduction of good and productive varieties. NAl'UBAL HISTORY CALENDAR AT FOO-CHOW-FOO. / 119 XV. — Outlines of a Natural History Calendar at Foo-chow- foo, the capital of the Chinese province of Fokien (Lat. 26° 4' S., Long. 119° 4' E.). By the late G. Tradescant Lay, Esq., F.C.M.H.S., Her Majesty's Consul at that place. (Communicated August 6, 1845, by the Eight Hon. the Earl of Aberdeen, Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to whom it was transmitted by his Excellency Sir J. S. Davis, Bai't., Governor of Hong Kong.) The first portion of this curiovis Calendar, embracing four months, has already appeared in the Society's Transactions, vol. iii., second series, p. 237. It is to be hoped that the lamented death of Mr. Lay will not have prevented the trans- mission to Europe of the remainder, of which five months more will complete a twelvemonth. Outlines of Calendar for November, 1844. OS Therm. Barometer. Hygrometrlc State. Wind. Atmosplieric Phenomena. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 72 72 72 71 70 64 65 66 69 70 67 e: 64 78 76 76 75 71 76 75 71 78 67 67 70 30,04 30,04 30,03 29,94 29.94 29.99 29,80 30,03 29,86 29.84 29,84 29,90 29.93 29,98 29,83 29,89 Dry. A.M., N.E. ; noon, S.E. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Light airs. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. A calm. N.E.,afresh breeze. Morn, N.E.; noon, S.E. N.E.; nooo, S.E. ; light airs ; night, N.E. Morn,N.E., with puffs from S.E. Morn cloudy. Noon cloudy, with fits of sunshine. Cloudy with mists, which are more frequent here than in any part I have visited. Morn gray, with fits of sun- shine. Rain fell during the last night. Sky cloudy and lowering : these tlireats not followed by rain. Misty. Rain in the evening. Rainbow at sunrise. Sky va- riable during the day. Cloudy. Clouds uf the con- figuration which Mr. Howard calls cumulo-strati. At sunrise, dark clouds bor- deied with red. Morning sunny. At noon a few drops of rain : change in the " feel" of the wind, t. e. colder. Sunrise misty; clouds strati- fied. Day very dull and foggy. A few drops of rain at 3 A.M. Day clear with a few cumuli and strato-cumuli. Sky clear with a patch of cloud here and there. Clear aloft. A low mist couch- ing over the city. Night clear, with a few stratified clouds; chilly. Preceding night starlight. Day clear and sunny. 120 ME. LAY ON THE OUTLINES OF A 0-5 The A.M. ■m. P.M. 14 64 70 Ij 64 75 16 75 omit 17 64 , , 18 58 64 19 58 64 20 56 omii 21 56 64 22 60 omit 23 62 76 24 68 76 25 68 80 26 68 omii 27 68 72 23 63 75 29 68 73 30 71 72 Barometer. JHynrometric State A.M. P.M. 29,96 29,95 29,97 30,00 30,00 30,03 30,06 30,06 30,03 30,00 29,99 29,97 29,97 29,97 30,00 30,00 Dry. Moru, N.E., puffs from S.E. at noon. Morn, N.E ; noon, puffs from S.E.; dayfall, N.E. Morn, calm ; noon, S.E. Do., Night calm. N.E. N.E , nearly calm ; p.m. southeily. N.E., nearly calm. N.E.; P.M., southerly. N.E. ; near- Iv calm. even- west- N.E. ing erly. Moru, N.E.; eve, S.E. Morn, N.E., nearly calm ; noon S.E., puffs. W., nearly calm. S.E. : eve, S.W. W. ; south erly puffs. Atmospheric Phenomena. Clear aloft. Mist over the city and skirting the hills as usual in clear weather. Morning, cloudless aloft, «ith dew on the grass. Moru with stratified clouds, dew on the grass. Noon sky cloudless ; evening again cloudy. Morn, sky cloudy, no dew; day clear. Morn, pale copper-coloured cloiuls with swathes of va- pour as if driven by the wind in the region below ; mid-day clear ; sunset cloud- les>. At sunrise not a cloud visible. A few small clouds in patches. Morn clear and cloudless ; a copious dew. Morn cloudless; mi»t over the city ; a copious dew. Morn, plentiful dew on the grass ; a few wavy patches of empurpled cloud. A cloudy mantle investing the sky; sun at rising just peep- ing between the patches. A slight shower. Sky clear ; night moonlight. Clear aloft, foggy below. Fog-clouds rising from the nortli-east. Morn sky mantli-d with clouds; little dew. Uiyfiue; over- cast at day-fall ; weather pleasant to sense. Rain preceding night. Morn with a mantle of clouds. A light shower at noon. Chilly. Day showery. Hushandr)/ and Gardeninc/. — 1-10. Wheat sown in holes on the high lauds from which a crop of Sweet-potatoes has been just removed. — A layer of mould finely mixed with ashes is put into each hole either before or after the wheat is sown. In one instance trenches were drawn by the hoe, the grain thrown in, and a dressing of night-soil. — Reaping the second crop of rice commences at the opening of the month. It is forthwith threshed in a NATURAL HIsrOUY CALENDAR AT FOO-CIIOW-FOO. 121 square tub, dried, and dressed in a machine like our own. — The ground, after being turned up with a plough or with a hoe, is broken by a three- pronged fork. A harrow has not yet crossed my eye. — 15. Setting garlick, stacking straw, watering mustard-seedlings. Chah-tsae fit for the table. — 17. Wheat springing up 4 inches long; ploughing and breaking the clods still continue. — 18. Tobacco springing up. — 19. The husbandman complains of drought. In dry weather wheat is steeped in water to promote germina- tion, but neither in urine, lye, nor any drugged preparation. — 23. Setting out of " Cheng-tsae," one of the cabbage family. — 24. Saw a man weeding out the barley from the wheat, that the worse might not obstruct the growth of the better. — 2.5. Barley is sown in the same way as wheat. The former is called " toy muk " or great wheat, the latter " chew muk," or little wheat. Both are much used here in the making of different sorts of -vermicelli. Fruits and Floivers in Season. — 1-13. Sweet-potatoes (Fang-sew) are now in great abundance, and are sold for 4 cash per catty, /. e. less than a farthing per lb. They are dressed by steam in a sort of sieve set over a pot of boil- ing water for that purpose. They are mucli relished by the common people, who find them ready cooked as they pass along the stret^t, and thus oljtain a "bait" or " teen-sing" at an easy purchase. — Oranges of the loose and close peeled kinds begin to make their appearance, but not in any plenty. — The Diospyros Kaki is called " tey " here, the ^^ " che " of the northern dialect ; it being customary in this to exchange ch for t. This most whole- some fruit is now in season : here it is of a middling size and of a sightly aspect. — Garlick plenteous ; the accompaniment of pork and fish. — 14. Bam- boo shoots, or "suing," in season. — 15. Cabbage from Shan-tung dear: a kind resembling it cultivated here cheap. — IG. Lettuce in leaf not earthed up : eaten by lactescent women to promote the secretion of milk. — 19. The leaves of the Stillingia sebifera, or Tallow-tree (" Woo-keung " of the natives), turn red about this time, and then the tree exceeds in beauty both the Chinese Plane-tree and the Chinese Maple, which in Autumn are tinted with car- mine, and which are much talked of by poets under the common name of " Fung Shoo." — 28-30. Plants in flower : Golden Kod, berried Polygonum, purple Sow-thistle, Parsley, Michaelmas Daisy, Chaste tree. Dwarf-rose here and there. Dwarf-thistle or " keymoo-hwa,' and Pih-tsae, or White cabbage. Lycium barbarum in fruit and flower. — Canarium in season, much relished. — San-cha, a kind of Sorbus from Shan-tung dipped in syrup and stuck on a rocket of straw. — Sent specimens of this from Ningpo to the Horticultural Society. [It is growing in the Garden.] Two are sold for 3 cash. Animal Kingdom. — 1-10. The most common species of Sesia, or glass- winged moth, still seen in pairs on plants and low shi'ubs. — The silky Ant is not less on the alert, running over the branches of the Guava-tree and the stems of the Sugar-cane in quest of any sweet or gummy juice that may ooze from the bark. — The note of the Blackbird, '• Oshe-put " of Canton, and the " Woo-hik" of this place, is no longer heard at peep of day. — The voice of the lied-winged pie still awakes the silence of the grove. — A fly that moves its wings alternately in slow and laborious action is seen on ihe leaves of the Canarium. — 15. Cockroach of a small size and spotted with ash and brown, common in the nests of the Clubiona. — 18. Saw a pair of herons with a brown body and white wings ; when disturbed they utter a croak. Phea- sants brouglit to market. — 20. The white herons disappear at times and then return again, but not in great numbers ; they are jierhaps guided by the state of the weather. — 23. Pair of Woodpeckers seen on a tree, small, brown colour. — 24-30. A. Dragon-fly struggling on the ground : a Diadem-spider had stole on it while asleep and gummed two wings to each other, and to its 122 MR. LAY ON THE OUTLINES OF A own body. — Found a few of the Scarabeidoe in a heap of cow-dung — not usual in China to leave the dung long enough for beetles to lay their eggs in it. — Cabbage butterflies now begin to make their appearance. — The song i =P=^ =Q of the Turdus occipitalis heard in the coppices, on the peach and other trees, uttering a grating note. — Long-tailed Jay feeds on the berries of the tallow- tree. The untiring activity of this bird remarkable. — Tosterops, or " White Eye," seen, fond of suspending itself as if in search of insects ; the habit continues in the cage, where it is fed on Water-boatmen. — Ant-like Attus, a new genus, found in Ants' nests : it is a spider exactly like an Ant in figure, attitude, and place of abode. General Remarks. — 5. Cooks and victuallers busy in preparing soups of every variety for the labourers who bring goods to market and fetch manure back. A basin is sold for 4 cash. A working man can eat four of these basins at a time, if very hungry six ; so that he has a hearty meal for less than a penny. The lowest earning of a poor man is a groat per diem. — 9. Visit a kiln where shells of all kinds are burnt for lime. Fire blown by revolving vanes like a dressing-machine. — 16. Visited a Tobacco Manufac- tory, and remarked that the press somewhat resembles that used by paper- cutters in England ; but pressure is not effected by means of a screw, but with the help of ropes and levers. — 19. The leaves are cut into "Shag Tobacco " here ; but the stems are closely packed and sent to Ningpo, where they undergo a process which the workmen of that city alone understand. A part of the Tobacco thus made is brought back to this port. — 23. Country people put on thick clothes and shut their doors. — 24. Foam floating down the river. — 25. The splitting of bamboos for the manufacture of salt bags furnishes employment for many hundreds ; each half is divided into ten wickers. Day's wages 140 cash. — 27. Consulted as to the site of a grave under an impression that I must be well versed in such matters. Much good or much evil is thought to betide the survivors from a right or wrong position. — 30. Keang-se practitioners in this " te-le " and " fung shwuy," or soothsaying, from the influence of the earth's local modalities, get large monies by the trade ; but as they do not agree among themselves the people are fain to ask counsel of the stranger. Outlines of Calendar for December, 1844. o-S Therm. Barometer. Hygrometric State. Wind. Atmospheric Phenomena. Q2 A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. 1 3 66 66 63 66 66 64 29,95 29,97 29,96 •• Objects ex- posed to at- mospheric currents, damp. Wet clotlies refuse to dry. A.M., W. ; noon, N. A.M., S.E.; P.M.. N.E. A.M., S.E.; P.M., E. Dull and drizzling. One of the gloomiest days we have had. Clouds hanging at the foot of the hills. Morn drizzly ; clouds very low ; P.M. rain. Rain in preceding night. A thick fog with a few blinks of light aloft amidst rain. P.M., a heavy shower with a huge volume of vapour moving from east to west. NATURAL HISTOEY CALENDAR AT FOO-CHOW-FOO. 123 o "5 Therm. Barometer. Hygroraetric State. »^ c Wind. Atmospheric Phenomena. II A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. 4 62 68 29,97 •• Damp. A.M., N.E.; noon, .S.E. Sky mantled with clouds ; litl- ing ; no rain. 5 66 72 29,90 29,97 Less damp. S.E. Sun seen at sunrise with pro- mise of a fine day. Mid- day fine ; rain in the even- 6 64 64 29,94 .. .. ,, Rainy morning ; wind cold. 7 58 58 30,00 •• •• S.E., light airs. Cloudy day, with some rain. 8 56 61 30,00 1 .. Drier. .. Blue sky and sunshine. 9 56 63 30,00 29.94 S.E. Day fine. 10 58 65 29,95 i 29.91 , , .. Clear and clieerly. 11 59 76 29,91 29,95 Dry. A.M., N.E. ; P.M., W. Bright and clear, a copious dew on the grass. Air warm and sweet to sense. 12 62 65 30,01 •• " A.M., N.W.; noon, S. ; strong Body of the sky blue ; clouds in flakes, connected like waves of the sea, thicker breezes. edge towards the eye. 13 50 56 30,16 i .. " S.E. .strong breestes. Haze of a peculiarly greasy kind, apparently tlie presage of a gale. 14 52 65 30,01 , .. - N.E., gentle breezes. Clear; dew on the grass. 15 56 68 30,01 .. '■ '• Clear aloft; moisture on the grass from a low mist. 16 66 78 29,80 •• N.E. ; noon, S.E. Clear and warm. 17 62 29,89 •' A.M., S.; P.M., N. Rain more or less all day. 18 49 •• 30,15 •• Very damp. N.E. Rain in the preceding night ; day thick and cloudy. 19 48 52 30,15 30,07 Less damp. N.E., strong breezes. Thick and rainy ; p.m., clouds lifting; day on the wliole cold and comfortless. 20 52 60 30,03 •• •• N.E. Thick and rainy, witli some blinks of promise. 21 56 58 30,03 •• •• •• Heavy rain in the previous night ; day gloomy. 22 54 54 30,16 ,. N.E. Dull, cold, and cheerless. 23 54 54 30,16 ., N. Rainy and cold. 24 56 56 30,01 •• •• " Cloudy and cold ; clouds in layers variously coloured- 25 52 52 30.06 30,09 " Cloudy and cold ; clouds wear the aspect common to those from the North, high, dark, and motionless. 26 44 52 30,20 •• •• " Clouds of the same character as yesterday. 27 49 58 30,20 •• " Same as the two preceding days. 28 49 58 30,16 30,12 ,, Very clear sky ; mild to sense. 29 56 64 30,09 •• •• " Cloudy at first with mist over the city ; fits of sunshine. 30 57 62 30,08 30,03 , , ,, Clouds dark and high. 31 60 6.| 30,01 • • * * A.M., N. ; noon, S. Fine and clear. Hushandry and Gardeiiing. — 1. Seedling plum and Longan trees set out. Sowing wheat over. — 3. Saw a piece of ground that had been newly turned up with the plough. A kind of mustard with a curled leaf just springing up among a dressing of wood-ashes. — 5. Setting out lettuce among garlick. — 124 MR. LAY ON THE OUTLINES OF A 6. Mustard in perfection. — 7. Hoeing wheat and barley. Setting out the crisp-leafed Mustard. — 11. Setting out the Coco or Caladium. It is pro- pagated by offsets taken from a reserved bed in some spare corner. — 24. A stillness prevails in the fields. Wheat, fresh and vigorous. Hoeing wheat still in places. Manuring and transplanting mustard. — 28. Transplanting Tobacco ; cutting Sugar-cane for eating unprepared. Fruits and Flowers in Season. — 1. King chae, or Celery, large and fresh- looking. — 7. Found a mushroom with some of the beauty but little of the fragrance of its congener at home. — 12. Marigold, or " Che tong kouk," i. e. Mid-winter Chrysanthemum, sold in bundles at the rate of two for 1 cash. — 22. Glutinous rice made into cakes and called "chaw wong," in commemoration of midwinter and a thank-offering to heaven. Animal Kingdom. — 3. "Maw ky," a Crab with a lock of hair on each of its nippers, in the market. Eels plentiful in the market, as are Kays and Swimming-crabs. — 7. The Tae-yu, or band-shaped silvery Sea-eel, in great abundance. — 11. Saw a flock of Linnets with a yellow patch on their wing ; they seem fond of perching on high trees ; they were occupied in dressing their feathers. General Remarks. — 4. Foam, spars, wood, and chips floating down the river. Heavy rains inland may be inferred from this. — 17. Pirates attacked a boat belonging to the •' Tea Merchant " or Canton Agent, and robbed the partner who had been to buy tobacco-stalks at Leen Keang. These pirates have virtually letters of marque against their own countrymen, as the Government cruisers find it worth while to leave them alone. — 22. Mid- winter festival. Crackers heard all night. Outlines of Calendar for January, 1845. «*- J Tlierm. Barometer. Hvgrometric State. "ii Wind. Atmospheric Phenomena. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. 1 56 56 30,01 Less damp. N. Cloudy and chill. 2 38 69 29,98 ' • " Day dull ; clouds dark and stratified with brownish edges. .3 62 62 29,93 29,96 S. Soon alter sunrise fine ; as the day advanced sky became hazy, cold, and cloudy. 4 58 54 30,05 •• A.M., S.; p.M.,N.W. Cold and cloudy. 5 50 53 30,12 30,09 •• A.M.. S.W. ; P.M., S.E. Cloudy, with intervals of sun- shine. 6 50 54 30,15 30,14 N. Cold :ind cloudy. 7 54 , ^ 30,14 . , „ Clear. 8 48 ,^ 30,20 ,, Clear. 9 44 52 30,18 „ Clear aloft, hazv below. 10 45 58 30,20 ,, Clear. 11 45 30,22 , , ,, Clear. 12 48 30,17 ,, Clear at first, afterwards cloudy. 13 56 G6 30,06 29^96 Dry. A.M., N.; P.M., S. Clear. 14 55 .. 29,96 ,. , . N.W. Clear. 15 55 29,96 . . .. N. Cloudy. 16 60 •• 29,96 •• •• A.M., N.; P.M., S. Rainy. 17 60 ** Bar. ui.t at hand. •• • • N. Rainy ; mild to sense. NATUKAL HISTOEV CALENDAll AT FOO-CHOW-FOO. 125 Atmospheric Phenomena. Cloudy. Mixture of cloud and sunshine ; heavy raius during the pre- vious night. Rain and mist, with a ten- dency to clear. Misty and cold. Cloudy. Cloudy, with drizzling ram. Strong breezi' in the night; moonlight ; day foggy. Foggy. Foggy. Fogjiy. Foggy ; clouds aloft stratified, tinged with red— a light red on the distant mountains — still air. Strong breeze in the night; cloudy, with fog; still air; P.M. sunny. Cloudy and mild. Fine and sunny ; sultry ; ra- diation great, as indicated by the sun's rays being very hot. Husbandry and Gardening.-l. Husbandmen occupied m transplanting Tobacco. Shallow holes are made about 18 inches apart; into this the seed- ling is set and watered with the usual manured preparation.-6. Lettuce still in bourse of transplanting in furrows that are drawn across each other so as S form a kind of trellis-work in picture.-lO Longan-trees sheltered by a rocket of straw spreading out below. The hoar-frost is supposed to lall from the sky, and^trikiifg upon this contrivance, is dispersed. The reason- InTof the neasan is founded upon the postulatum that cold m its accidents Lnroperations Resembles the electric fluid.- 18. The landscape on the level grounds varied with patches of green and yellow; the !>;-- JXling wheat the latter of the P h-tsae, or white cabbage.— 21. The transplanting rf^Temceous pl^^^^^^ and the cutting and dressing thereof, ^^tiU P-vide occu- n>,tinn for the gardener.— 28. Draining ponds for the sake of fish and the SwSch is usedTn manuring the so1l.i29. Many acres of the land about SeciTy fallow, as it is feared the crop of wheat would not be ripe soon enough to make room for the rice. . , ,. i Fruits and Flowers in Season.- I. Pears from Shan-tung with little flavom-: they are sold at 80 cash per catty.-a ^--f^'^'^'^fSaZ taste smell, and ripeness by keeping, are now m perfection.--5. Orang.s ha!e acquired their 'full size' and'maturity.-lO. The ^ned Jujubes from Shan-tung and other places now in season.-30. Green peas m flower; Wheat beginning to ear ; Spike and Culm short. Animal Kinadum—l. The Ants that were seen clinging in a torpid state tole kaveTand iuds of some fir-trees, either expired n that position or seizing an hour of sunshine, retreated to their nests.-4 Wasps and Hornets are no longer seen, and the Moths and Butterflies have bid farewell.-/, fhe pTedStarlfngandthe Cresfed kind, with the Magpie, Crow, and Fishing- Hawk sti Itftter sounds of joy, complaint, or sadness, as they find, miss, or 126 KATUEAL HISTOET CALENDAR AT FOO-CHOW-FOO. long for their peculiar sorts of food and entertainment. — Gad-flies, Sand- wasps, and a few Butterflies enticed out of their winter-quarters by the unusual mildness of the day. General liemarks. — 5. A lottery on the hills. As many poor people are quite undone by the seductive baits held out to them, the authorities endea- vour to lay hold on the sellers of tickets, managers, &c., who choose a spot whence they can see their pursuers before they arrive. — 6. The Consul calls upon the Tartar General. The luncheon consisted of many courses; all the viands in silver bowls kept hot by spirit-lamps of variously tinted flames. — 7. " Woo te meaou,'' a large temple outside the city, set on fire by a votary, who came with incense and candles to ask for a dream to guide him in the choice of characters for a lottery-ticket. XVI. — Memorandum concerning the Pine-apple Soil of the Ba- hamas. In a letter from the Hon. John Campbell Lees, C.M.H.S., dated Nassau, New Providence, Feb. 8, 1845. I SEND you a small box, containing a specimen of what is called here " Pine-apple>land ;" a very red soil, and tliat alone in which the pine-apple will grow. We have two other kinds of soil here; one, a very white calcareous soil, consisting chiefly of finely pulverized IMadrepore limestone, in which the maize or Indian corn grows remarkably well ; and the other, a deep black soil, I believe almost entirely vegetable, and very light, in which many things grow luxuriantly, but in neither of them will the pine-apple grow at all. The red soil does not, as far as pines are concerned, appear to be improved by manure. I planted several in the same bed, some without manure, and others with different proportions of stable-manure ; between those in the natural soil and those slightly manured, I could perceive no difference ; but beyond this, in proportion to the quantity of manure, so did the plants decline and turn white. I have tried plants in composts of charcoal and manure, and of charcoal, earth (calcareous), and guano, but without success ; nothing seeming to suit them here but their favorite red soil. From the great perfection to which the cultivation of the pine is brougirt in England, the analysis of this earth might lead to the suggestion of some manure which could be applied suc- cessfully to it here, for at present we have none ; and, conse- quently, in a few years the soil is quite exhausted and useless, and requires, it is said, a period of fourteen years to recover, and then not perfectly. Note upon the foregoing Communication, by Edward Solly, Esq., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Society. The " Pine-apple soil," sent by the Hon. Mr. Lees from New Providence, is of a light red colour, and evidently contains a HON. J. C. LEES ON THE PINE-APPLE SOIL OF THE BAHAMAS. 127 large quantity of oxide of iron. The soil is free from stones ; and though it appears to consist in great part of a coarse ferru- ginous sand, on examination is found to contain no sand, being easily rubbed to an impalpable powder in a mortar, and showing no grittiness under the pestle. A portion of the soil, freed from the larger fragments of wood, roots, and bark whicli it contained, gave an analysis of the following composition, in ten thousand parts : — Silica .... 309O Alumina .... 2400 Oxide of iron . . . .1832 Lime (chiefly as carbonate) . . 132 Magnesia .... 8 Potash in a soluble state . . 5 Potash combined with earthy matter • 20 Phosphate of iron ... 9 Sulphuric acid ... 2 Chlorine .... 4 Ammonia . . . .a trace Organic matter . . 990 Water . . . .1508 10,000 The soil is chiefly remarkable for the unusually large propor- tion of oxide of iron which it contains ; but in the absence of any analysis of the Pine-apple plant, no very accurate conclusion can be drawn as to the peculiar excellence of this earth for its cultivation. On first examining the soil, I had expected to find a large quantity of ammonia, for the absorption of which from the air it is well fitted, by the large proportion of oxide of iron which it contains ; this, however, was not tlie case ; the quantity of ammonia obtained by analysis was exceedingly small. I must postpone further observations on this subject until I am enabled to contrast the composition of the pine-apple plant with that of the soil which appears to be so peculiarly favourable to its growth. XVII. — A Notice of Simmons's Patent Hygrometer. By the Vice-Secretary. At the Meeting of the Society in Regent-street, Feb. 17, 1846, Mr. E. Simmons, of Coleman-street, in the City of London, produced an Hygrometer contrived by him for Horticultural Purposes. Taking advantage of the well-known Hygrome- trical properties of wood, the inventor adapted a thin strip of Mahogany, cut across the grain, to a pulley and spiral spring 128 VICK-SECKETARY ON SIMMONS'S PATENT HYGROMETEK. connected with a vertical arm resembling the hand of a clock. This hand was made to traverse a dial-plate marked off into de- grees, expressing the amount of moisture in the air between what is observed wlien the instrument is plunged in water on the one hand and exposed to excessive atmospheric dryness on the other. The accompanying figure, and the description following, taken from Mr. Simmons's Registration in the Patent Office, will further explain the nature of tiie instrument. From trials made with this Hygrometer in the garden of the Society, it has been ascertained that it is much better adapted to Horticultural Purposes than any hygrometer yet in use. For strictly scientific purposes it is not indeed equal to Daniell's, because it is impossible to make two instruments which will work exactly alike ; but it has the great advantage of being as easy to use as a thermometer, and the instruments will be quite as com- parable as common thermometers themselves. In fact, difl^erences between such conti-ivances, to the extent of two or three degrees, are of no practical moment. In a trial made between Simmons's and Daniell's Hygrometer in the Orchideous House in the Garden, an unexpected result was obtained. Placed in the same situation the following were the observations : — Jan. 22. Simmons's. Daniell's. Noon Wet Saturation. 4 A.M. Wet Saturation. In the course of the night the evaporating tanks lost their water in consequence of the bursting- of a pipe, and the obser- vations that followed the accident were remarkable : Simmons's. Daniell's. Jan. 23. 8 a.m. . 1 . Saturation. „ Noon. . 6 . do. „ 4 P.M. . 10 . do. Jan. 24. 8 a.m. . 50 . do. In this instance the air must necessarily have become drier every hour, because the usual supply of vapour was cut off' by the removal of the evaporating tanks ; and yet Daniell's Hydro- meter remained invariably at what is called " Saturation ;" but Simmons's was faithful to the duty expected of it, and continued to indicate increasing dryness as the vapour suspended in the air diminished. Without pretending to explain this puzzling cir- cumstance, it must be taken as valuable testimony to the efficiency of Mr. Simmons's Hygrometer. Two of the instruments are in use in the Society's Garden, and continue to give satisfactory indications. YICE-SECEETARY ON SIMMONS'S PATENT HYGEOMETER. 129 4^ 1 fH f.lB f\j i;lf| '1 1:1 "« ;'( j 4 ■J ^1'; jl i l) i'l- 1 1 i',r lt '■: 1 ^ ii'iwii ■' l/Jl VOL. I. 130 VICE-SECEKTAKY ON SIMMONS'S PATENT HYGROMETER. " A slip of wood is cut transversely with the grain, of about, or varying from 6 to 1 7 inches in length, according to the absorbing property of the wood employed ; one end of the slip (BBB) secured to the frame or fabric (AAAA), at pin (C) ; but on the other end of the slip (B) is fixed a pulley (D), which is kept in its position by a line (a a), one end of which is secured to the frame or fabric by the hook (b), and passing through the pulley (D) affixed to the slip (B), thence round a small pulley (t) of about two-tenths of an inch in diameter, the axis of which carries a hand (E) to indicate on a dial (FF); inside, and affixed on the same small pulley, is another pulley ((/) of the same size, and on the same axis, having a line (e) on it, drawn by a weight or spring (G), which pulls up the slip (B) tight ; yet by its tension allows the dilation or contraction of the slip in its changes, giving motion to the hand indicating on the dial. " The improvement claimed in this instrument consists in adapting the changes produced by moisture upon wood with a line through the medium of pulleys to give a legible indication to a hand on a dial, which renders it portable and convenient for scientific purposes and domestic usefulness." XVIII. — On the Culture of Epiphyllum truncatum. By Mr. John Green, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Sir Edmund Antrobus, Bart., F.H.S. (Communicated with a very fine specimen of the plant, for which a Bank- sian medal was awarded, January 20, 1846.) To propagate the Epiphyllum truncatum, I prepare young healthy stocks of Cereus speciosissimus, and engraft them with the above in March, from one to two feet above the surface of the pots. I grow them in the stove till they are sufficiently large for flowering, which should be in about eighteen months from the time they are grafted. In the autumn of their second summer's growth I remove them from the stove to a cool airy part of the greenhouse, or, if the weather is fine, place them out on a south border out of doors; and, as winter advances, I diminish the quantity of water till they become quite dry. They remain in the greenhouse at rest till they are required for forcing. Those that I require to flower first are removed back to the stove early in spring. As soon as they have matured the first growth, I place them in any exposed part of the garden. This change causes them to set flower-buds at the point of every shoot. As soon as the flower-buds are well established I place the plants in a warm shady part of the greenhouse, where they will flower profusely by the early part of October. By removing the plants successively from their winter quar- ters to the forcing-house, and treating them as above mentioned, a succession of fine plants can be kept in bloom from October to March. To those who esteem a collection of winter flowers, nothing can be more desirable than this Epiphyllum truncatum, E. vio- ME. AYBES ON MANAGING ERICA HIEMALIS. 131 laceum, and E. Russellianum, both which I grow in the same manner. I have grafted the Epiphyllums upon several Opuntias and Pereskias, but I find the Cereus speciosissimus very superior to any other as a stock. It is more lasting, a strong grower, and very hardy ; indeed I find it the best stock for all other Epiphyl- lums, and for the weak-growing kinds of Cereus. I water all my Cacti when growing occasionally with guano- water. XIX. — T7ie ^lethod pursued in managing Erica hiemalis. By Mr. TV. P. Ayres, C.M.H.S., Gardener to James Cook, Esq., F.H.S. (Communicated February 17, 1846, with a very fine specimen, to which a Banksian medal was awarded.) The plant now exhibited was purchased, two years back, from Messrs. Fairbairn, of Clapliam, for the sum of 1*. Qd., being then about six inches high, and growing in a five-inch pot. In February, 1844, it was potted into an eleven-inch pot, in a mixture of Shirley and "Wimbledon peat in about equal quantities, using the soil as rough as possible, and with a liberal admixture of Reigate sand, charcoal in large pieces, and small pebbles. Until it started into free growth it was kept in a moist and rather warm atmosphere ; but during the summer it was grown in a low pit with free ventilation, and occasional shading in bright sunshine. On dull days and dewy evenings the lights were removed entirely, and during September and October it was fully exposed to the sun. Having, however, grown very freely, it showed but little disposition to bloom ; and what few flowers were produced were removed before they expanded. In Feb- ruary, 1845, it was removed into the eighteen-inch pot in which it is now growing, and, during that season, was kept in the greenhouse, but was placed in the open air on all favourable occasions ; indeed, it was not housed at all, except in very heavy rains, until after Christmas. It has been in bloom nearly three months, but is now rather fading. I should not have sent it in this state, only at the earnest request of several members of the society. I must not omit to mention, that during the season of 1845 it was occasionally watered, say once a month, with a weak solution of soot and guano, used in a perfectly clean state. The guano used was Potter's, which I prefer to the imported, it being more uniform in its strength. K 2 132 MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. XX. — Notes xipon Begonias. By Mr. James Donald ; pro tempore Superintendent of the Hothouse Department in the Society's Garden. There is, perhaps, no tribe of plants more interesting than this ; for if they possessed no other merit than the beauty and duration of tlieir flowers, that alone would be sufficient to recom- mend them to a place in every collection ; but besides this, their leaves, perhaps, exhibit a greater diversity of form and colour than any other genus of plants in cultivation. Many of the species continue to bloom throughout the year, and those that only flower at certain seasons remain in beauty for a length of time. With all these merits it is surprising that the different species of so extensive a genus are not oftener seen grouped together and occupying a house by themselves ; for until this is the case, their real worth as ornamental plants will not be fully appreciated. In regard to their cultivation I may mention that Begonias are all stove plants, and that they enjoy a humid atmosphere of about 80° in summer, with a slight shade to break the rays of the mid-day sun. In winter the atmosphere sliould be kept dry, especially in cloudy weather, and tlie temperature allowed to fall as low as 58°. Although B. Evansimia Sixxd others will stand in a greenhouse, still even these species are much benefited by heat and moisture during the early part of the season. As to the soil most congenial to their nature, there appear to be various opinions. From experience I am satisfied that sandy loam and leaf- mould are the two principal materials, and for the kinds that grow luxuriantly these should be used in equal proportions. For some species, such as B. coccinea, which are liable to damp off, the quantity of vegetable matter may be less, and the deficiency made up with silver sand. Damping, however, cannot altogether be attributed to soil, but must be ascribed to bad drainage, or to moisture when the plant does not require it. In preparing the pots some prefer small potsherds for drainage : this, in my opinion, is almost as bad as using sifted soil, for if the crevices are small they will be the more easily filled up. For an eight-inch pot, which may be taken as an average size for growing a specimen plant, the potsherds should not be less than three inches across ; and if laid to the depth of two or three inches and properly covered with pieces of turf, there will be no danger of the roots suffering from damp, if water is judiciously given. Begonias being in general plants of free growth and delight- ing in fresh soil, it is necessary to repot them twice in the course MR. DOXALD'S NOTES UPOX BEGONIAS. 133 of a year, viz., February and August ; but this rule, like many more in gardening, is not without an exception ; one plant may grow faster than another under the same circumstances, and therefore ought to be repotted when it requires it, nothing being worse for any plant than to cramp its roots. As Begonias are generally intermixed with other plants, and receive a similar supply of water both in summer and winter, they may well present a sickly appearance. There are few plants that require a more liberal supply during summer than they do ; indeed some of the robust growing sorts will flourish with their pots half immersed in water ; but, like other plants, they require a season of rest, at which time comparatively little moisture is required. This period is clearly pointed out by nature. In October all the species with which I am acquainted begin to show that water should then be gradually withheld ; if it is continued, some begin to drop their leaves, others to decay at the root or assume a languid appearance : therefore it is obvious that they should be kept dry from the 1st of November to the 1st of February. During that time if water is given once or twice a week it will be sufficient, and the herbaceous sorts may be kept quite dry. Although many species remain green and healthy in winter, the growth they make is but trifling, nor should they be induced to grow, for if they are deprived of the season which nature has provided for their rest, the best of management will not compensate for it in twelve months afterwards. There are some who imagine that a bushy plant cannot be produced, unless it has been cut down in winter or pinched back during the growing season, but this is a mistake. If B. undulata, or any of the fibrous-rooted sorts, which require pruning, are cut down in winter, the root will in all probability die, and if pinched back, when are they to flower? To such as 13. Evan- siana the knife is never required, because the stems die down annually ; and it is never necessary to cut such as B. hei-acleijHia : therefore this matter rests with the tall-growing sorts. To explain this it will be necessary to consider what functions such stems perform. Take B. undulata for an example: every stem of one year's growth, notwithstanding its flowering, is a magazine in which secretions are stored for the support, during a certain time, of those which may arise from its base the following season, and thus the stems become analogous to the pseudo-bulbs in Orchids ; were this not the case, suckers would rise as strong without the stem as with it, and they would not be liable to damp off", although it should receive an injury. From this it is evident that all the pruning that is necessary is to cut out all the stems above two years old, and this should be done in spring when the plant is repotted in order to give room for the young shoots. 134 MK. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. As to propagation, perhaps few plants are so easily increased as Beo-onias. All those from which cuttings can be taken will strike freely under ordinary treatment, and such as B. Barkeri, from which cuttings cannot be had, may be abundantly multi- plied from seed. The seed should be sown when gathered, in light sandy soil, and placed in a moist situation, where the seed- lings may be shaded from the rays of the sun. As great confusion occurs among the names, one species often being known by three or four different names in as many estab- lishments, I have been induced to offer the following plain descriptions of such of the species as are most generally met with : — A. Stems none. 1. B. rtibricaulis. Leaves all from the root, heart shaped, about five inches in breadth, of a dark green colour, and hairy on both sides. Flowers few, but beautiful, closely set together on the top of a foot-stalk of from eight to ten inches in length, covered with fine white hairs. This species in some respects resembles B. albo-coccinea, especially in the purple sepals and almost white petals, and, like it, blooms in autumn, and pro- bably at other seasons. B. Stems creeping. a. Leaves palmate, equal at the base. 2. B. heracleifolia. Stems short and creeping. Leaves palmate, from fourteen to sixteen inches across, of a dark green colour, and hairy on both sides. The most remarkable feature in this species is the footstalks which support the leaves; they are generally about two feet in height, and covered with strong white hairs rising from crimson spots, which, aloTig with nume- rous short bright green streaks, give the plant altogether a sino-ular appearance. Flowers pink, in loose panicles, elevated on hairy footstalks about three feet in height. It blooms in spring. — Mexico. 3. B. crassicauUs. Stems rather short, thick, and fleshy, in- clinin"" to creep, of a dull green colour, wlien young thickly set with strong black hairs having all their points turned upwards. Leaves palmate, measuring about ten inches across, of a bright green colour, and partially covered with a soft brown substance beneath. Flowers white, produced in great profusion all over the stems. A deciduous species, flowering in spring before the leaves appear. — Guatemala. b. Leaves ovate, equal at the base. 4. B. fagifolia, entirely covered with soft white hairs. Stems creeping, short-jointed, and of a dull crimson colour. Leaves MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. 135 ovate, about two inches in length, remaining long on the stem. Flowers white, rather small, but produced in great profusion, and remaining in perfection about two months. This, although it only blooms in spring, makes a beautiful object when grown on a trellis. Syn. B. pendula, JB. repens. — Brazil. c. Leaves oblique, ovate, acute. 5. B. manicata. Stems rather short, inclining to trail, green when young, and marked with a few white streaks. Leaves oblique, fringed at the margin, of a bright green colour, smooth on the surface, but remarkable for the depressed crimson scales, which are suspended from the veins beneath, increasing in size and number towards .the footstalk, and forming a ruff where they unite. Flowers pink, in loose panicles rising about a foot above the leaves. It blooms in spring. — Brazil. d. Leaves oblique, obtuse, often round. 6. B. stigmosa. Stems short, inclining to creep. Leaves oblique, sometimes nearly round, from six to eight inches in breadth, curiously fringed at the margins, of a pale green colour, smooth on the surface, and beautifully marked with dark purple spots. The veins on the under sides, as well as the long foot- stalks, are covered with soft chaffy looking scales, giving the plant altogether a very mottled appearance. Flowers greenish- white, in loose panicles, rising six or eight inches above the leaves. 7. B. Barkeri. Stems very short and strong, lying close on the soil. Leaves unusually large, often a foot and a half across, and in form resembling a rhubarb leaf; smooth and shining on the upper surface, downy beneath, and supported by strong footstalks densely covered with dull green scales. Flowers white, pro- duced in a huge mass on a footstalk upwards of four feet in height. It blooms in autumn, and at other seasons. — Mexico. 8. B. ramentacea. Stems short, and covered with depressed scales, which give them a very singular appearance. Leaves oblique, sometimes nearly round, from six to seven inches in breadth, dark green, and shining on the surface ; crimson be- neath, and covered with short forked hairs, gradually depressed towards the footstalks, which are covered in the same manner as the stems. Flowers pink, in loose panicles, consisting of twenty or thirty blooms. A handsome species, and one that appears to flower several times in the season. — Brazil. 9. B. hydrocotylifolia. Stems short, creeping on the soil in a congregated mass. Leaves about two inches in breadth, almost round, dark green, and shining above, crimson beneath, and co- vered with soft brown hairs, which gradually disappear as the 136 MR. DONALDS NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. leaves become old. Flowers pink, on loose panicles, rising six or eight inches above the leaves. A very pretty species, flower- ing in spring, and remaining for a length of time in bloom. e. Leaves oblique, peltate. 10. S. albo-cocci?iea. Stems short, inclining to creep. Leaves peltate, oblong, of a dark green colour, covered when young with soft brown hairs which soon drop off, leaving them quite smooth on both sides ; but still a soft substance clings to their footstalks, and gives them a rust-like appearance. Flowers in loose panicles of from thirty to forty blooms, elevated on foot- stalks about a foot and a lialf in height ; petals pure white, con- trasting well with the sepals, which are bright scarlet, especially on the outside. — East Indies. C. Stems erect, seldom branching. a. Leaves digitate, equal at the base. \\. B. muricata. Stems rough, from three to four feet in height, and of a dull green colour. Leaves digitate, consisting of from six to eight leaflets, three or four inches in length, hairy on both sides. Flowers white, rather small, but numerous, forming a close panicle, elevated on a footstalk about eight inches in height, which, like the stem, is also covered with a rough hairy sub- stance. It blooms in autumn, and probably at other seasons. Syn. B. digitata. — Brazil. 12. B. digitata in some respects resembles the preceding. Stems erect, about three feet in height, of a dull crimson colour when young, and thinly covered with soft white hairs. Leaves digi- tate, consisting of from four to eight leaflets, or sometimes en- tire, assuming the usual oblique form, smooth, and dark green above, bright crimson beneath, and scattered over with a few white hairs. Flowers white, scarcely different from those of B. muricata. It blooms in summer. — Brazil. b. Leaves obHque, partially lobed. 1 3. B. dichotoma. Stems strong, from four to five feet in height, inclining to branch, rough and channelled. Leaves large, some- times measuring ten inches across, unequally toothed, of a dark green colour, shining above, and smooth on both sides. Flowers white, in large clusters, suspended by long foot-stalks. Syn. B. longipes^ B. macrophylla. — Caraccas. 14. B. longipes. tStems about five feet in height, very stout, be- coming brown when old, and singularly dotted over with bright green spots. Leaves large, sometimes a foot in breadth, serrated, unequally lobed, of a dull green colour, and covered with short down-like hairs, especially on the under sides. Flowers white. MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. 137 in clusters, suspended by very long footstalks, generally from the upper portion of the stem. Syn. B. macrophylla, B. odorata. — Mexico. c. Leaves oblique, ovate. 15. B. papulosa. Stems about four feet in height, thinly covered with white bristle-like hairs, which, as the wood becomes hard, drop off, leaving the latter beautifully marked with short white streaks. Leaves oblique, about four inches in length, gradually tapering to a point, very rough, and of a dark green colour, thinly set with short ridged hairs on both sides. Flowers rose- coloured, produced in rather large clusters, hanging on slender footstalks from tlie upper portion of the stems. This species blooms occasionally in the course of the season, but never in great abundance. — Brazil. 16. B. dipetala. Stems erect, rather stout, about four feet in height, of a dull green colour, and singularly marked with small scarlet spots. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, thinly set with short hairs on both sides, dark green, except the veins which, like the footstalks, are crimson. Flowers pink, in grace- ful clusters, suspended on footstalks from three to four inches in length. This, with the two preceding, blooms during the spring and summer months. — East Indies. 17. B. Meyerii. Stems hard and woody, about four feet in height, beautifully coated with soft brown fiairs. Leaves ob- lique, from six to eight inches in lengtli, very soft and woolly on both sides. Flowers white, produced in ratlier dense clusters, suspended by footstalks six or eight inches in length, which are covered with a brown substance similar to that on the stems. It blooms during the spring months. — Brazil. d. Leaves oblique, ovate, peltate. 18. B.peltifoUa grows about three feet in height, stems rather woody, and these with the leaves are thickly covered witli a white woolly substance, giving the plant a very hoary appear- ance. Leaves peltate, about ten inches in length, very thick, and easily broken. Flowers white, in large clusters suspended by footstalks generally more than a foot in length. Syn. B. paucijlora, B. acida, B. peltata. — Brazil. 19. B. vitifolia. Stems strong, from three to four feet in height, seldom branched, of a dull green colour, and covered with a brown woolly substance which falls off as the wood becomes hard. Leaves peltate, about eight inches in breadth, generally concave, unequally toothed, and slightly woolly, especially on the lower side. Flowers white, hanging in large clusters from the upper portion of the stem. This, with the former, blooms during the spring months. — Brazil. 138 MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. D. Stems erect, branching, fleshy at the base. 20. jB. homonyma. Stems from two to three feet in height, en- larged at the joints, and forming a large fleshy base, from which the young shoots spring. Leaves oblique, about three inches in length, inclining to divide into four unequal lobes, smooth on both sides, and generally of a dark-green colour. Flowers pure white, generally in threes. This resembles B. parvifolia in habit, but may be at once distinguished from that species by its much larger leaves, which are always of a very dark colour. It blooms during summer and autumn. Syn. 13. sinuata. — Brazil. 21. B. parvifolia. This species in almost every respect re- sembles tlie preceding, except that the stems grow somewhat more erect and are less disposed to branch. The leaves are of the same form and colour, and only diffier in being about one third larger. The flowers individually are similar both in size and colour, suspended in little clusters varying in number from three to five blooms. This, with the former, may be kept in flower during the greater part of the year. Syn. B.Jloribunda, B. semper jior ens. — Cape of Good Hope. 22. B. Dregei grows from two to three feet in height, much branched and swollen at the joints, especially towards the base. Leaves oblique, about an inch in length, very unequally toothed, quite smooth on both sides, and of a delicate green colour, passing gradually into a purple towards the margin. Flowers white, generally in pairs, and large in proportion to the size of the leaves. Syn. B. parvifolia, B.Jloribunda, B. semperjlorens. — Cape of Good Hope. E. Stems erect, branching, not fleshy at the base. a. Leaves oblique, ovate, acute. 23. B. Fischeri. Stems branched, from two to three feet in height, dark crimson, and marked with a few small white spots. Leaves oblique, about two inches in length, slightly toothed, dark-green above, quite smooth, presenting a very silky appear- ance, bright crimson beneath, and singularly crossed with large green veins. Flowers blush coloured, very small, and generally in threes. It blooms in spring. — Brazil. 24. B. rupestris. Stems from two to three feet in height, small, but strong, of a brown colour when young, gradually becoming black, and resembling a bamboo in appearance. Leaves oblique, about three inches in length, waved at the margins, of a dark green colour, and beautifully marked on the surface with white silvery looking spots. Flowers pink, generally produced in spring. — Brazil. MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. 139 25. B. acuminata. Stems somewhat slender, from three to four feet in height, rising in great profusion from the bottom, quite smooth, and very little swollen at the joints. Leaves oblique, about three inches in length, rather narrow, and very unequally serrated. In general they are of a lively green colour, tinged with crimson, especially the veins beneath, which are thinly co- vered with wliite hairs, extending down the footstalks. Flowers pink, in clusters of from eight to twelve blooms, springing from the axils of the leaves, on the upper part of the stems. It con- tinues to bloom through the whole year. — Jamaica. 26. B. hirtella resembles B. acuminata in habit. Stems from three to four feet in height, quite smooth, and slightly striated. Leaves obliq(xe, serrate, from two to three inches in length, of a shining pale green colour, and hairy on both sides. Flowers almost white, in small clusters, generally produced towards the top of the stems. It blooms during the summer months. Syn. B. acuminata. — West Indies. 27. B. Martiana. vStems herbaceous, from three to four feet in height, a little swollen at the joints, of a pale green colour, and marked with a few short white streaks. Leaves oblique, from two to three inches in length, unequally toothed, and covered with a glaucous bloom. Flowers pink, generally in pairs, but in great profusion. This very showy species blooms during the summer and autumn montlis. Syn. B. diversifolia. 28. B. incarnata. Stems about four feet in height, swollen at the joints, quite smooth, and marked with a few short white streaks. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, dark green, waved at the edges, and thinly set with short hairs on tlie surface and margins. Flowers pink, in clusters of about sixteen blossoms, suspended on footstalks about four inches in length. Blossoms throughout the season. — Mexico. 29. B. zebrina. Stems strong, from three to four feet in height, channelled, of a dull crimson colour when young, and marked with a few pale green streaks. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, bright green on the surface, beautifully marked with dark green shades underside ; smooth and shining. Flowers pink, in clusters, suspended by rather short footstalks. Syn. B. undidata. — Brazil. 30. B. Evansiana. Stems herbaceous, from three to four feet in height, enlarged at the joints, which are of a bright crimson, in other parts they are of a pale green colour. Leaves oblique, from five to six inches in length, dark green on the surface, and red beneath. Flowers pink, produced in loose panicles, which continue in beauty from May to September. A common species often to be found in great perfection in the window of the cottager. Syn. B. hdbifera, B. discolor. — China. 140 MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. 31. B. undulata. Stems about three feet in height, gradually tapering towards the top, seldom branching the first year, of a pale green colour, quite smooth, and marked with short white streaks. Leaves oblong, from four to five inches in length, waved at the edges, pale green, smooth and shining on both sides. Flowers white, in large clusters, hanging down from the upper portion of the stems. It blooms in autumn. — Brazil. 32. B. argyrostigma. Stems from three to four feet in height, of a dull green colour, quite smooth, and marked with numerous narrow white streaks. Leaves oblique, about eight inches in length, dark green, quite smooth, and singularly blotched on the surface with silvery spots. Flowers almost white, produced in loose clusters, suspended by rather slender footstalks, generally from four to five inches in length. It blooms in spring and summer. Syn. B. maculata, B. punctata. — South America. 33. B. odorata. Stems about three feet in height, of a pale green colour, faintly striated, and tinged with crimson at the joints. Leaves oblique, about eight inches in length, bright green, quite smooth and shining, especially on the under side. Flowers pure white, in large clusters, suspended on rather slender foot- stalks, generally on .the upper portion of the stems. Syn. B. suaveolens, B. sinuata. It blooms during tlie spring months. — South Atnerica. 34. B. sinuata. This is closely allied to B. odorata ; the stem, leaves, and even -the flowers appear to be very much alike in both species, and both bloom at tlie same season, but it differs from odorata in liaving the veins on the under sides of the leaves, and also a portion of the footstalks, slightly hairy. Syn. B. odorata. — South America. 35. B. nitida. Stems woody, long, and straggling, requiring a trellis to keep them up, and generally becoming bare at the bottom. Leaves oblique, from five to six inches in length, of a bright green colour, and smooth on both sides. Flowers pink, in clusters of from twenty to thirty blooms, suspended by foot- stalks about ten inches in length. — Penang. 36. B. aptera. Very like B. odorata, except in the stems, which are quite green, and apparently more disposed to branch. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, quite flat and rather long pointed ; of a bright green colour, smooth and shining. Flowers white, and produced in graceful clusters, similar to those of B. odorata. Like the preceding it blooms during sum- mer and autumn. 37. B. laurina. Stems very strong, about four feet in height, branching, green when young, and marked with a few white spots. Leaves oblique, about two inches in length, beautifully serrated, dark green, and smooth on both sides. Flowers pink, ME. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. 141 in rather small clusters, but suspended in a graceful manner from the lateral branches. This, with the two preceding, blooms during- tlie summer months. 38. B. sanguinea. Stems about three feet in height, of a dull crimson colour, and quite smooth. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, dark green above, bright crimson beneath, and smooth on both sides. Flowers almost white, produced in clusters of from twenty to thirty blooms, suspended on foot- stalks from four to six inches in length. It blooms in summer and autumn. — Brazil. 39. B. coccinea. Stems from two to three feet in height, quite smooth, of a dull crimson colour, and marked with a few pale green streaks. Leaves oblique, about six inches in length, glau- cous, and green on both sides. Stipules large, of a pale green colour, and membranaceous. Flowers bright scarlet, in loose panicles, rising from the axils of the leaves towards the top of the stem. Syn. B. rubra. — Brazil. 40. B. ulmifolia grows about three feet in height, branched, of a pale green colour, and thinly covered with short hairs. Leaves ovate, about three inches in length, serrate, pale green, and hairy on both sides. Flowers blush coloured, in little clusters, sus- pended by short footstalks from ,the upper portion of the stem. It blooms during summer and autumn. — South America. 41. B. castanecefolia. Stems branched, slender, somewhat swollen at the joints, of a dull green colour. Leaves ovate, about an inch and a half in length, serrate, pale green, and smooth on both sides. Flowers blush coloured, borne on short spurs which are produced in autumn. Although this species flowers only in spring, and then not in such profusion as many others, still it possesses a neat habit which renders it a desirable addition even to a small collection. — Brazil. b. Leaves ovate, obtuse, often equal at the base. 42. B. semper jlor ens. Stems almost herbaceous, of a pale green colour, and between two and three feet in height. Leaves about two inches in breadth, nearlj'^ round, differing very much from the usual oblique form, bright green, smooth and shining on both sides. Stipules rather large, often adhering to the stem after the leaves have dropped off. Flowers pure white, in short panicles, rising from the axils of the young leaves. This is a very pretty species. Syn. B. Hookeri, B. spathulata., B. grandijiora. — Mexico. 43. B. cucullata. Stems from two to three feet in height, smooth, of a dark green colour, and slightly tinged with purple at 142 MR. DONALD'S NOTES UPON BEGONIAS. the joints. Leaves oblique, quite blunt, from three to four inches in length, dark green, and smooth on both sides. Stipules very large, fringed, and of a pale green colour. Flowers resemble those of the preceding species, and it also keeps in bloom the greater part of the year. Syn. B. spathulata, B. semper- Jlorens, B. grandijtora. — Brazil. Index of the foregoing Names and Synonyms. (The latter are m it ilics.) Begonia acida . . . 18 | Begonia macrophylla . 14 „ acuminata 25 „ macidata 32 „ acuminata . 10 „ manicata . 5 „ albo-coccinea 10 „ Martiana 27 „ aptera . 36 „ Meyerii . . 17 „ argyrostigma 32 „ muricata 11 „ Barkeri . 7 „ muricata . . 12 „ hulbifera 30 „ nitida . 35 „ castanesefolia . . 41 „ odorata . . 33 „ coccinea 39 „ odorata 14,34 „ crassicaulis 3 „ papillosa . . 15 „ cucullata 43 „ parvifolia 21 „ dichotoma . 13 „ paj-vifolia . 22 „ digitata 11 „ paucijlora 18 „ digitata . . 12 „ peltata . 18 „ dipetala 16 „ peltifolia 18 „ discolor . . 30 „ pendida . 4 „ diversifolia . 27 „ punctata 32 „ Dregei . . 22 „ ramentacea 8 „ Evansiana 30 „ repens . 4 „ fagifolia . 4 „ mbra . 39 „ Jloribtinda 21 „ rubricaulis . 1 „ Jloribtinda . 22 „ rupestris . . 24 „ Fischeri 23 „ sanguinea 38 „ grandijlora . 42 „ semperjlorens 21 22, 43 „ grandijlora . 43 „ semperflorens 42 „ heracleifolia 2 „ sinuata . 20,33 „ hirtella 26 „ sinuata 34 „ homonyma . 20 „ spathulata 42,43 „ Hookeri # 42 „ stigmosa 6 „ hydrocotylifolia . 9 ,. suaveolens . 33 ,, incarnata 28 „ ulmifolia 40 „ laurina . . 37 „ undulata . 29 „ longipes 13 „ undulata 31 „ longipes . . 14 „ vitifolia . . 19 „ macrophylla . • 13 „ zebrina 29 MR. WILLIAMS 01^ THREE NEW VAEIETIES OF APPLE. 143 XXI. — An Account of Three new Varieties of the Apple. By John Williams, Esq., of Pitmaston, C.M.H.S. (Communicated December 16, 1845.) Looking over my fruit-room yesterday, I could not bring to my recollection whether I had sent specimens of a seedling apple which I raised from the kernel of what I believe to be the true Golden Pippin. The original tree has been in bearing eight or ten years, and appears to improve in quality by age. When first gathered from the tree this year, about the middle of October, I thought it contained more sugar and less malic acid than any apple I have ever met with ; certainly much more sugar than the famed Cornish gilliflower. It is now getting a little past its best if used for the press, but as a dessert fruit it still preserves its firmness and saccharine quality. The tree grows with much vigour. I have named it the " Pitmaston Golden Pippinr With the preceding I have sent a few specimens of the True Golden Pippin, also grown in my garden, where it has fruited for several years past, the grafts of which I got from an old tree which was considered to be the true sort. You will also receive a sample of a seedling raised from the Old Golden Pippin, I should think more than sixty years ago, by a Mr. White, of Witley, who for many years was the steward to the trustees of the late Lord Foley's father during the minority of the late Lord. It bears well, resembles its parent, but is a little larger. It is named the " Pine-Apple." A fourth sort I got upwards of twenty years ago from Mr. Foley's, of Stoke Edith, in the county of Hereford, where I saw the original tree growing in Mr. Foley's garden. It is known in my garden by the name of the ^^ Stoke Park Pippin." In cha- racter it so much resembles the Old Golden Pippin, that I think it must have been raised from a kernel of that apple. It bears well with me, but the wood is rather disposed to canker. We have an Agricultural Association in Worcestershire, of whicli I am a member. We give an annual prize for the best seedling pear, either for the dessert or for making perry ; also for the best apple for the table or cider. I have always been named as one of the fruit judges, and the way I test the merit of an apple or pear is by reducing the flesh of the fruit to a pulp, by means of a little wooden bowl and pestle. The reduced pulp is then placed in small quantities on an earthen dish, and exposed for about fifteen or twenty minutes to the air. This I have practised at home to decide on the merits of cider-apples for years past ; but last October, at our exhibition, I told my two 144 MR. WILLIAMS ON THREE NEW VARIETIES OF APPLE. fellow judges of fruit that I would save their teeth from the effects of tasting sour apples. I accordingly set to work, and having arranged the reduced pulp of about a dozen apples in rows on a dish, where, with a number corresponding with each fruit, it remained about fifteen minutes, I then pointed out which I expected we should all agree was the best fruit for the press by the depth of the brown tint assumed by the absorption of oxygen ; and according to the experiments of Mr. Knight and Sir Humphry Davy, the absorption added to the sacch matter. If you were to reduce a small quantity of the fle.sh of my Pitmaston Golden Pippin, by scooping off a little of it with the point of a tea-spoon, a silver dessert-knife, or an ivory scoop, you will in about fifteen or twenty minutes find the pulp two shades at least of a deeper brown colour than that of the Old Golden Pippin under similar treatment. Pitmaston.) near Worcester, Dec. 16 Sir 0. Mosley, Bart. 5 „ Sir J. Sebright, Bart. 5 >» R. H. Solly, Esq. 5 „ John Rogers, Esq. 5 » Dr. Royle . 1 for 2 years. Dr. Lindley 5 for 5 years. Dr. Henderson 1 „ J. Wedgwood, Esq. 1 for 1 year. E. W. Pendarves, Esq. . 2 for 3 years. E. Barnard, Esq. . 1 for 5 years. E. Strutt, Esq. 2 „ W. H. Pepys, Esq. 2 „ S.Solly, Esq., .5 for 1 year. C. Webb, Esq. A donation of \Ql. W. Murray, Esq. . 2 per annum for 5 years. W. Ogilby, Esq. . 1 » for 3 years. Major Buckley 1 „ „ J. Blunt, Esq. £1 Is. per annum for 5 years Thomas Farmer, Esq. A donation of 5/. Sir G. Mackenzie, Bart. 2 per annum for 5 years. L. H, Petit, Esq. . Two donations of 5l. each. The Council agreed to defray the charges of re-agents and travelling expenses to the extent of 201. a year, and Mr. Edward Solly was intrusted with the investigations. Some very elabo- rate papers, issuing from this inquiry, have already been printed in the Transactions, others have appeared in the Journal, and more are still in course of preparation. The period, however, for which the Committee was organised having been already ex- ceeded, it will be discontinued at Midsummer next, after having lasted for five years ; during which time Mr. Solly has on seve- ral occasions, in addition to his other duties, delivered lectures on horticultural chemistry in the meeting-room. But although the Chemical Committee will be dissolved at Midsummer next, 174 EEPORT OF THE COUNCIL. the Council have been desirous to preserve their connection with Mr. Solly, and have therefore appointed him Honorary Pro- fessor of Chemistry to the Society. Among the means which the Council have deemed it expe- dient to take in order to increase the efficiency of the Society, has been the substitution of a Quarterly Journal, in an octavo size, for the costly quarto Transactions. The latter have always been published at uncertain intervals — and, of late years, in consequence of their expense, the period that has elapsed be- tween one Part and another has been more than ever consi- derable : to remedy this, it has been decided that the Trans- actions shall be discontinued as soon as a complete Index of their voluminous contents shall have been prepared. That, in the meanwhile, and in future, there shall appear quarterly, on the 1st of January, April, July, and October, an octavo Journal, which shall contain papers on horticultural subjects, both theo- retical and practical — an account of the proceedings of the So- ciety — the result of experiments carried on in the Garden — a description of new plants introduced by the Society — the corre- spondence of collectors — and such other details as may appear likely to interest the public. Of this Journal two Parts have already appeared, and the Council trust that the measures which they have taken to ensure its utility and punctual appearance will prove effectual. It is not expected that the cost of this work will be smaller than that of the quarto Transactions if they had appeared annually, but the form and mode of publication of the Journal are believed to be better suited to the purposes to the Society and the wishes of the Fellows. With a view to secure efficient co-operation in this work, the Council have recently recommended a considerable addition to the Corresponding Members of the Society, which recommenda- tion was adopted at the meeting on February 17, 1846, when the following elections took place : — Mr. W. P. Ayres, gardener to J. Cook, Esq., F.H.S. Mr. J. Barnes, gardener to The Lady Kolle, F.H.S. Mr. W. B. Booth, gardener to Sir C. Lemon, Bart., F.H.S. Mr. J. Brown, gardener to the Right Hon. Sidney Herbert. Mr. David Cameron, at the Botanic Garden, Birmingham. Mr. A. Campbell, at the Botanic Garden, Manchester. Mr. Thomas Corbett, gardener to Sir William Molesworth, Bart., M.P., F.H.S. Mr. James Duncan, gardener to Jos. Martineau, Esq., F.H.S. Mr. James Falconer, gardener to A. Palmer, Esq. Mr. R. Fish, gardener to Colonel Sowerby, F.H.S. Mr. D. Fergiison, at the Botanic Garden, Belfast. Mr. G. Fleming, gardener to the Duke of Sutherland, F.H.S. Mr. A. Forsyth, gardener to the Earl of Shrewsbury, F.H.S. MAY 1. 1846. 175 Mr, John Green, gardener to Sir E. Antrobus, Bart.. F.H.S. Mr. J. Henderson, gardener to Earl Fitzwilliam, F.H.S. Mr. Edward Law, gardener to The Lord WharnclifiFe. Mr. A. Scott, gardener to Sir George Staunton, Bart., F.H.S. Mr. John Spencer, gardener to the Marquis of Lansdowne. F.H.S. Mr. G. Vinden, gardener to J. D. Llewelyn, Esq. Mr. R. Wilson, gardener to the Duke of Norfolk, F.H.S. Mr. J. B. Whiting, gardener to H. T. Hope, Esq., F,H.S, Mr. J. M'Nab, juu., Experimental Garden, Edinburgh. Mr. Robert Reid, gardener to Mrs. Clark, Noblethorpe, Bamsley. Such are the main points to which the Council deem it neces- sary to draw the attention of the Society. This Report shows that during the last six years the debt of the Society has been reduced to the extent of 4315/., although in the course of that time has been expended — For medals and other rewards . . . £ 5,690 For the expenses of collectors . . . 3,837 For new buildings and other outlays in further- ance of the objects of the Society and in augmentation of its me^ns . . . 5,221 £ 14,748 ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. XXIII. — On the Management of Fruit- Tree Borders. By Mr. Eobert Reid, C.M.H.S., Gardener to Mrs. Clark of Noblethorp, near Barnsley. (Communicated April 29, 1816.) Planting fruit trees on solid floors of stone or other hard material has been recommended by some of the most eminent horticulturists as a certain method of preventing the roots from penetrating into the subsoil, and keeping them near tlie surface, whereby they receive all the benefits derivable from the influence of the atmosphere on dressings of manure. But there are other great advantages attending the above methods of planting which have not been pointed out by any writer on gardening, that I am aware of, and which I consider well deserving the attention of the society. The gardens at this place were made entirely new in 1839-40, previous to which time I had not paid much atten- tion to this method of planting, but on consulting a friend * I was induced to adopt it ; I accordingly had every tree, both wall and standard, planted on floors of stone, which consisted of thin free-stone flags laid in beds of mortar, and firmly jointed with the same : the floors for the standards were 3 feet square, those for the wall trees were made 6 feet in length, parallel with the wall, and 3 feet in width, from the wall to the border ; they were made nearly level, and placed about 1 foot below the sur- face of the border. When the trees were planted the floors were first covered with about 6 inches of soil, and 8 or 9 inches over the roots, raising little mounds over them to prevent the drought from penetrating too deep during the summer. On the second summer after being planted the Peach trees grew with great vigour, many of the shoots measuring 4 feet in length and upwards, which induced me to examine the state of their roots in the autumn when they had finished their growth ; I found many fine roots which had grown nearly 7 feet from the stem of the tree, and 4 feet beyond the outer edge of the stone floor : on finding them in this prosperous state I had a trench opened opposite every tree, and cut the roots back close to the edge of the floor all round. The following summer the growth was not, of course, so vigorous, but strong enough to produce a sufficient supply of fine bearing wood, likewise ripening a few fruit on each tree perfectly. Last autumn (the fifth season) I * Mr. Eobert Errington. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF FRUIT-TBEE BOEDEES. 177 again examined the roots, when I found them very numerous, and extending to nearly 12 feet distance from the wall, when I again had the border trenched, cutting off every root to within 18 inches of the floor, or 4 and a half feet from the wall. As the trees are still growing rather too strongly for bearing well, they having all reached the top of the wall (12 feet high), I expect this second cutting will not only double the number of roots, but will so regulate the growth of the trees as to bring them into a permanent bearing state without any check whatever. It will be obvious, from the above statement, that when fruit trees are planted on stone floors, the roots may be increased in number, and their position ascertained with as much facility and certainty as the branches, and the operation performed without any, or at least with very little check to the growth of the tree, and may be repeated at proper intervals for many years ; and this I consider far preferable to taking up the tree bodily for the purpose of pruning its roots, which can only be done once or twice in the first stages of its growth, and which even then will not prevent the. roots, in the course of time, from penetrating deep into the subsoil, producing that luxuriant barrenness of which we see so many instances in old gardens. It is certainly a great satisfaction to know nearly the position of the roots of every fruit tree in a garden, especially when a change of gardeners takes place. The new gardener will at once be able to ascertain their state of health, or if their situa- tions do not please liim tliey can be quickly removed without check or loss of much time, if the roots have been previously attended to in the proper way. The vine borders here are made on stone floors, extending the whole length and breadth of the borders, the floors sunk only one foot below the surrounding ground ; the borders sloping down from about 2 feet in depth next the houses to a few inches at the outside. The vines have been planted five years, and have borne four good crops, and are, to all appearance, likely to continue in the same prosperous state ; but should tlie borders require at any time a renewal it is easily managed with a bottom of this description, as by keeping close to the stone every root may be carefully raised up and preserved, if necessary, I am so thoroughly convinced of the superiority of the above way of planting fruit trees over all others, that I am particularly anxious to direct the attention of the Society to the subject. VOL. I. ( 178 ) XXIV. — On the Treatment of the Genus Amaryllis for Autumnal Blooming. By Mr. John Spencer, C.M.H.S., gardener to the Marquess of Lansdowne, F.H.S., at Bowood. (Communicated March 16, 1846.) The great scarcity of flowers during the months of October, November, and the early part of December, for decorating the conservatory and drawing-room, induced me to try the experi- ment of so far altering the habit of some of the varieties of the genus Amaryllis, as to enable me to depend on their blooming in those months as strongly and regularly as they usually do in the spring. The success that has attended my practice, and the great acquisition they are at that time for the above purposes, have induced me to lay my method before the council of the Horticultural Society. Before I explain my own mode of culture, I beg to quote the opinion of the late President of the society on the growth of bulbous plants in general, as it has furnished me with an admir- able groundwork for prosecuting the cultivation of this tribe of plants.* " Bulbous roots increase in size, and proceed in ac- quiring powers to produce blossoms only during the periods in which they have leaves, and in which such leaves are exposed to light ; and these organs always operate most efficiently when they are young, and have just attained their full growth." Bearing these important facts in mind, we will suppose a moderate collection is already in hand, and the object to be attained is to induce the bulbs to bloom in the autumn months. In the first place they should be potted in December, using pots in proportion to the size of the bulbs. The soil I have found best suited for their growth is composed of two-thirds light turfy loam, and one-third of half rotten leaves and coarse river sand, draining the pots well, and using the compost in as rough a state as possible. If additional stimulus is required, it may be sup- plied, when the leaves are fully formed, in the shape of manure- water every second or third watering. In potting them, observe to keep two-thirds [of tlie bulb above the earth in the pot : they should now be plunged in a pit or frame near the glass, and where there is a moderate bottom heat to encourage the bulbs to root freely before they commence growing by the leaf ; and to accomplish this, the bottom heat should be considerably in ad- vance of the top. When it is found that the roots have made considerable pro- gress towards filling the pots, they should be removed to a light house, and be placed as near the glass as circumstances will * Knight in Transactions of Horticultural Society. ME. SPENCER ON THE TREATMENT OF THE AMARYLLIS. 179 admit. The temperature of this house should be kept between 60 and 75 degrees. The increase of both light and heat will cause the bulbs to grow rapidly, and great care should be taken not to injure the foliage ; if any blooms appear they must be removed, and water supplied when requisite ; by this treat- ment the plants will in a short time possess a strong and healthy foliage, at which time manure-water may safely be applied with the best effects. Whenever the appearance of the leaves indi- cates suspension of growth, water should gradually be withheld ; but they must still be exposed to the utmost amount of light and heat, until the leaves become of a partially brown or yellow colour, when they may be removed to a dry cool place until wanted for blooming. By the above treatment they will gene- rally be in a perfectly ripened state by the end of April or early in May. I do not agree with those who advise that, during the period of the plants' rest, they may be shaken completely out of their pots, for I find they bloom mucli stronger by being allowed to remain in the pots in wliich they grew. It will be seen that the roots, if taken proper care of, keep fresh and vigorous during their rest, and shaking them out would greatly weaken their after-flowering. It is not material where they are kept during their repose, provided they are kept dry. Towards the end of August preparations may be made by com- mencing with all or part of the stock : the pots should be well soaked with water, and then plunged in a mild bottom heat in any pit or frame that may be at work. When the flower stems have advanced 6 or 7 inches in height they may be removed to a stove to open their flowers, and afterwards placed either as orna- ments for the conservatory or turned out into vases or ornamen- tal pots for decorating the drawing-room — where the nobleness of their flowers, and elegance of habit, make them suitable decorations. By the above management I have found those varieties enumerated below bloom quite as strong as they usually do in the spring : Johnsoni, Reginae, Vittata, Reticulata, and their allies, frequently have 3 or 4 spikes of bloom, and attain the height of from 3 to 5 feet. Immediately after they have done blooming they should be partially shaken out, disturbing the roots as little as possible, and repotted as before advised ; placing them in a bottom heat until the roots have taken hold of the soil. And then is to be pursued a similar course of treatment, as before recommended. In conclusion I beg to add, that few flowers will better repay the little extra trouble their successful cultivation requires than the Amaryllis, and that none is susceptible of greater im- provement : their cultivation appears to have retrograded of late N 2 180 MR. HARTWEG'S JOURNAL OF A MISSION TO CALIFORNIA. years, this genus having, as I think unjustly, been thrown into the shade by more favoured races. Still I hope some spirited cultivator will again bring them into public estimation, and place them in company with other more esteemed species. List of varieties grown to bloom in the autumn : Amaryllis Johnsoni Amaryllis picta reginae Solandriflora vittata • reginae Sweetii reticulata marginata conspicua vittata nobilis Acramanni marginata venusta concinna aulica grand is And several other hybrids. insignis XXV. — Journal of a Mission to California in search of Plants. By Mr. Theodore Hartweg, in the service of the Horticultural Society. Part I. [It has been already stated (p. 169) that in the autumn of last year the Council of the Society decided upon sending Mr. Hartweg out again as a collector. He was instructed to proceed to Vera Cruz, thence to reach the city of Mexico without delay, and afterwards to station himself at Tepic until an opportunity occurred of obtaining a passage to California. In that country he was to spend one or two years, as might appear to himself most advisable. The following is the journal which Mr. Hartweg has kept, in pursuance of his instructions, as far as it has been yet received.] After a passage of forty-five days in one of the royal mail steam-packets, I arrived in the evening of the 13th of November, 1845, in the roadstead of Vera Cruz, and landed the following morning, when I presented my letters of introduction, and made arrangements with Messrs. Manning, Mackintosh, and Co., with regard to forwarding the collections I might from time to time send to their care. On the morning of the 15th I left Vera Cruz for the sugar estate of Mirador, where I was welcomed by my old friend, Mr. Sartorius. Mirador is about three miles from Zacuapan, where Mr. Sartorius then resided when I arrived in Mexico in De- cember, 1836 ; and being situated on the eastern declivity of ME. H-IETWECS JOURNAL OF A MISSION TO CALIFORNIA. 181 Orizaba, commands a fine view of the lowlands of Vera Cruz. Having only a short time to spend here, I made an excursion to the colder district of Orizaba, by passing through a deep ravine to the village of Chichiquila. Here I found a Magnolia, form- ing a large tree with oblong shining leaves, several species of oaks, Ganya macrophylla, Cobaea scandens, Lophospermum scandens, two species of Viburnum, a Cornus, Tilia mexicana, a Juniper forming a small tree, Pinus Pseudo-strobus, and P. Llaveana, the latter with rather more elongated cones than those found near Zimapan. On the 29th of November, I arrived at Jalapa, and taking the diligence for Mexico, I arrived in the capital on the 3rd of December. After a stay of two days, during which time I de- livered my letters of introduction, I left for the Hacienda de Laureles, near Anganguco, where seven years previously I found Acliimenes patens and heterophylla, the objects of this journey. Notwithstanding I recollected the locality where I saw them in flower in September, 1838, yet I had great difticulty in finding the roots, for not a leaf, however shrivelled up, could be seen. Under these circumstances I consider myself very for- tunate in having found roots of some species of Achimenes, but whether of A. patens or heterophylla, or both, I must leave un- decided. [It has proved to be A. patens only.] On Saturday the 13th I returned to Mexico ; on the 15th I was obliged to be present in clearing my luggage at the custom- house. On the 16th I went in search of Abies hirtella, of which Humboldt gives the locality at ' El Guarda,' an insignificant military post on the road to Cuernavaca, at a distance of thirty miles from the capital. El Guarda is situated on a lofty plain ; the only silver firs within view are on the mountain half a mile to the south ; this is a little wood covering only the north side of the hill, and consists entirely of Abies religiosa. From in- quiries I made at El Guarda respecting another silver fir grow- ing about there, I could learn nothing satisfactory. From my own experience I am sure that it does not grow, if at all, within six miles of El Guarda. This excursion, however, has not been fruitless, for I found near Ajusco a Pine I had never seen before, and which I suspect to be Loudon's Pinus Montezumse, it has the same glaucous appearance as P. Montezumse in the Society's Garden, but shorter leaves, smaller and more pointed cones. It forms a tree of about 40 feet high, and from the upright leaves and habit in general, it has much the appearance of Pinus Pinea. On December the l7th I returned to Mexico, and called the following day upon H. B. M.'s Minister, Mr. Bankhead, through whose influence I obtained some letters of introduction 182 MK. HAKTWEG'S JOURNAL OF A MISSION TO CALIFOKNIA. from the Mexican government to the governors of Guadalajara, Mazatlan, and California. Having arranged my affairs with Messrs. Manning and Mackintosh, I took the diligence on the 19th for Guadalajara, where I arrived safely on the 25th, pass- ing over a very uninteresting ground, for not a tree was to be seen save a few stunted Schinus Molle and Opuntias. On the 28th the arrangements being completed for pursuing my journey, I left on horseback in company with Mr. K., a young merchant who is proceeding to Mazatlan, and arrived in Tepic on the 1st of January, 1846, after five days' hard riding. Having been advised by my friends in Mexico, and by Messrs. Barron and Forbes, of Tepic, not to proceed to California with- out my luggage, I resolved to await it here, and in the mean- time examine the neighbourhood. The town of Tepic is situate in a plain at an elevation of nearly 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and enjoys a tem- perature of 80° in summer, and 60° to 70° during the winter months. Most tropical fruits and sugar-cane are cultivated here. In the S.W. at a short distance from the town is a range of mountains, of which the liighest part is called the Cerro de San Juan. The whole range is of volcanic origin, and is chiefly composed of crumbled pumice-stone, which at a distance gives it a whitish appearance. The principal forest-trees are Pines, one of which closely resembles P. macrophylla, with beautiful long foliage and cones varying from 12 to 16 inches in length. This forms a tree from 60 to 80 feet high. Another species of Pine, forming an equally large tree, is called by the natives Ocote hembra (female pine, in opposition to the first, which is named Ocote macho or male pine). The foliage of this new species is 16 inches long, and the cones measure from 4 to 5 inches in length. This is not frequently met with, and the cones are produced more sparingly than in the other kind. The more elevated parts of the Cerro de San Juan are co- vered with oaks, an Arbutus, a shrubby Bocconia, several syn- genesious shrubs, a white flowering Ceanothus, Bouvardia splendens, and among herbaceous plants I observed Lobelia laxiflora, Spigelia scabriuscula, with a head of crimson flowers resembling at a distance Phlox Drummond, a half shrubby Pentstemon with large pink flowers, Macromeria exserta, Aris- tolochia brevipes, and the showy Lamourouxia multifida and cordata. On January the 8th, passing over the plain of Tepic in an easterly direction, after a ride of six hours I entered the Monte de los Quartos, a forest consisting chiefly of oaks with a few pines intermixed : the only plant in flower was Lupinus Ehren- bergii ; on the banks and in the dried-up bed of the rivulet that MR. HARTWEQ'S JOURNAL OF A MISSION TO CALIFORNIA. 183 crosses the mountain, Littaea geminiflora with a flower-stem from 12 to 18 feet long, but bent down by the weight of its numerous seedpods, grows abundantly. In the evening I arrived at the village of Ocotello. About noon the following day I reached the hamlet of Auseta, situate at the foot of the volcano Tetitlan. Having with difficulty procured a guide to ascend the mountain, and provided the necessaries, including a calabash with water, we set out and arrived before sunset on the north-western de- clivity of the volcano, where we encamped for the night in a beautiful pine forest. At seven o'clock on the 10th, leaving our horses in charge of my servant, I began to ascend with the guide, who, being armed with a machete (a kind of long knife), cleared a path among the brushwood and long grass that encumbered our way. After a continual steep ascent of four hours, through a forest composed chiefly of that long-coned pine found near Tepic, a few oaks, Mimosas, a Laurus, Garrya laurifolia, and a Fraxinus, we arrived at the ledge of a black volcanic mass, destitute of all vegetation. No crater is perceptible, but it seems that the torrents of partly calcined lava that descend several miles into the plain below on the north and south side of the mountain, burst forth laterally. The volcano of Tetitlan is about 6000 feet above the level of the sea ; centuries must have elapsed since it was in activity ; no tradition exists among the population settled at its base when it broke out. Having finished our survey, we returned to our en- campment in two hours, and in the evening reached the farm of La Estancia, and returned thence by way of San Pedro to Tepic on the 12th. Having finished my letters for England by the 16th, I in- tended to have set out the following day on an expedition to the south ; but my plans were frustrated by a heavy fall of rain during the night and following days. Although we are now here in what is termed the dry season, yet occasional showers occur during the months of December and January, which are called by the natives Aguas nieves. They are not accompanied by thunder, but continue for several days without intermission. The weather having at length cleared up by the 20th, I sallied forth on horseback the following day with the servant I had hired for the occasion, and crossed the plain of Tepic in a southerly direction, leaving the Cerro de San Juan on the right. After an easy ride of three hours, we entered a ravine through which a stream that we had to pass several times winds its way. The vegetation hei'e assumes a tropical character, and furnished me a Cattleya, Stanhopea, Mormodes, Catasetum, and an Epiden- drum, none of them however in flower. In the evening we arrived at Compostella, said to be the oldest town in the state of 184 MK. HAKTWEG'S JOUENAL OK A MISSION TO CALIFORNIA. Jalisco : judging from its dilapidated state, tradition seems to be correct. On the subsequent day, crossing the plain of the Hacienda de San Jose del Conde, which affords rich pasture to several hun- dred head of cattle, we descended to the river of Huitotillan, a mountain stream running in a ravine probably 800 to 1000 feet lower than the level of the plain. The perpendicular sides present no facilities for a road being made there, we therefore had to pass up the ravine, fording the river eight times, which owing to the late rains was nearly impracticable, as the water reached up to our middles. The vegetation, as far as the small village of Matanejo, where we arrived in the evening, affords little inte- rest at this season. The copsewood covering the sides of the ravines is composed of deciduous leafless shrubs, only relieved by a giant Cereus, forming a singular tree ; this generally has a single stem 2 to 4 feet high, by 1 8 inclies in diameter, when it divides into numerous triangular branches, rising perpendicu- larly to the height of 20 to 30 feet. In May it yields a deli- cious fruit called Pitaya, wlien it is much sought after by the natives. Leaving Matanejo early the following morning, we soon entered a forest of oaks ; here I found two species of Epiden- drum, an Oncidium, Odontoglossum, and an Epiphyllum, the latter, like E. Ackermanni, inliabiting trees. Although I have not seen it in flower, yet judging from its broad deeply-cut leaves, or rather stems, it will prove a valuable acquisition to that interesting tribe of plants. The timber of the oak does not bear a high character as to durability ; when exposed to the weather it soon rots, and the trees, healthy however they appear to be, are generally hollow in the centre. Not seeing any prospect of finding anything to warrant my proceeding further in this direction, I returned to Tepic on the 23th. The following day the Aguas nieves set in again, and continued up to the 29th with scarcely any interruption. Hav- ino- made some excursions in the immediate vicinity of Tepic when the weather permitted it, but without finding anything worth noticing, I set out again on the 7th of February for San Bias. Descending by the road usually travelled during the dry season, we arrived in the evening at the farm of La Manuela, situate in a wood of Acacias, Prosopis, Laurus, Palms, Cedar, the Lemon, a species of Citrus, and several species of Ficus, among which there is one sending forth roots which descend into the earth, giving support and nourishment to the numerous far- spreading branches, or sometimes encircling a palm with its stem, thus presenting the singular deception of palm-leaves MR. HARTWEG'S JOURNAL OF A MISSION TO CALIi-ORNIA. 185 growing out of the fig-tree. As may be supposed, the embrace in time proves fatal to the palm. A species of Annona also occurs here spontaneously, producing a fruit which in size and shape resembles the Cheriraoyer, but bears no comparison with the latter as to quality. I often saw it cultivated in the warmer parts of Mexico, requiring a higlier temperature than the Che- rimoyer. It is, I believe, Annona laevigata (?) ; the native name is Anona. From La Manuela to San Bias, where we arrived the follow- ing day, the country is perfectly level, subject to inundations from the Rio Grande de Santiago, which empties itself by many outlets into the sea a few leagues above San Bias. One of these inundations happened a few days before, and left us to traverse a space of five leagues knee-deep in mud. After a stroll upon the beach and amongst the salt marshes, covered with Rhizophoras, which surround the town, I soon convinced myself that I need not look for any novelties there. Being detained on the 8th by the incessant rain, I returned to Tepic on the following day by the " Camino de aguas ;" this road is considerably shorter than the one I came, and from its rocky nature is passable at all times, whilst the road by La Ma- nuela is several feet under water during the rainy season. The following observations of the amount of rain fallen in Tepic from June, 1845, to March, 1846, were made by Mr. Alexander Forbes, and have been kindly given me by that gen- tleman : — Inches. 1845. June . . 6-5 July . 12-8 'August . 9-5 September 11-6 October 1-6 November 5- December 1- 1846. January 3-8 February 2-3 Total 48-1 This amount of 48*1 inches fallen during nine months is, however, above the average in ordinary seasons. The periodical rains set in about the middle of June, and terminate by the end of September ; the rest of the year is usually dry. {To be continued.) ( 186 ) XXVI.' — The late Mild Winter, An Extract from a Letter to the Vice-Secretary. By John Williams, Esq., C.M.H.S., of Pitmaston, near Worcester. (Dated January 20, 1846.) Many of my neighbours, knowing that I have kept a Meteoro- logical Journal for many years past, have questioned me if I ever remembered so mild a winter as the present has been down to this time ? My answer was, that I have recorded several mild winters, from October down to March and April, when we have experienced several sharp frosty mornings or cold dry north-easterly winds. I commenced my weather-journal in 1808, and have continued to make daily observations down to the present time, not merely a daily registration of the ther- mometer, barometer, wind, and degree of cloudiness or sun, dryness or moisture ; and for eleven years of the period kept a rain-gauge ; also occasional observations on the atmospherical electricity, and a record of all the storms in England, the neigh- bouring continent, and every part of the world, collected from newspapers, &c., and entered in the margin of my journal of corresponding dates ; also a Calendar of Flora, stating the day the blossoms of fruit-trees first opened, on different aspects, on walls or standards ; appearances of agricultural crops, and the expectant observations of practical farmers, as well as my own. When I explained all this to Sir David Brewster (then Dr. Brewster), with whom I had some correspondence about ten years ago, and made, for about three years, at his request an hourly observation on the 17th of July, for twenty-four hours, of the barometer and thermometer, but was. obliged to give it up as my health suffered from exposure to night air, speaking of my journal, Dr. Brewster expressed a hope that I would not destroy it, as in his opinion it would be a valuable record, de- serving of preservation. The season that has prevailed from the beginning of October last down to this day has been almost the same as in the years . 1821-22; that is, from the 1st of October, 1821, to the end of May, 1822. It then commenced with much blowing weather from south-westerly points, going round occasionally to the north-west, and sometimes, for twelve or twenty-four hours, to the north or north-east ; and on a few calm, bright nights the radiated surface-warmth reduced the temperature of the soil and leaves of plants sufficient to produce hoar-frost on grass in low situations ; and, once or twice, the thermometer, at 8 a.m., in January, was at 28° ; but the average maximum of the month of January this year exceeds that of January, 1822. Scarlet geraniums, however, in 1821-22, stood all the winter uninjured MR. WILLIAMS ON THE LATE MILD WINTER. 187 on the west side of my house, and also in the garden of a neighbour. Kirwan, who wrote on the climate of England and Ireland about sixty years ago, said the Atlantic Ocean was the great arbiter of our seasons. He considered that the Atlantic Ocean retained five degrees of the warmth given by the Gulf stream by the time it arrived on the western coasts of Ireland, England, and Scotland ; and I fully believe the truth of this observation. Yet it is a most extraordinary thing that almost a century past, when thousands of individuals have kept most accurate weather -journals, I have never met with one recording the temperature of the ocean, at the surface, surrounding Great Britain and Ireland at full tide, in the open sea (not the estuary of a great river). I made a request to the Royal Society to do this some years ago ; the answer was, that the Admiralty was the party to apply to. I did write to the Lords of the Admiralty before the ships were sent some years ago in search of a north-west passage into the Pacific Ocean ; I requested the temperature of the sea at the surface might be recorded ; this was done, but as the ships were con- tinually varying their latitude, the record was of no use to give the information I have so long sought. An accurate observa- tion in the German Ocean, made off the coast of Yorkshire, or a few miles eastward of the Frith of Forth, another at Spithead, Penzance, off Cork, and Isle of Man, in January, February, March, or April, last year and again this year, I feel certain would have given many degrees of temperature higher this winter than last year, 1844-45. The mild winter I have alluded to, of 1821-22, went on witliout frost or any check from cold winds through the months of February, March, April, and May. The whole month of June was the warmest I ever remember ; July also was warm till the 19th. But continual rains then set in at the time of corn harvest, and in August the wlieat in Wor- cester was all spoiled. There were good crops of apples and pears. If I am right in my conjecture, that after a blowing winter, and frequent south-westerly or westerly winds, we have a larger body of warm equatorial water drifted to the north-west of Europe, we shall then find the north-east winds, should they set in in March and April, prove much less cold than last year, when the German Ocean was so much cooled by the melting ice from the Baltic, the German rivers, coast of Norway, &c. There was no ice or snow in the western parts of Russia in 1821-22, and the mildness extended far eastward, where it appears the air got cooled in the northern regions and returned in a cold cur- rent through Greece, Turkey, and the countries to the eastward. Rome also was very cold, and North America. It is an old observation, that when the winter in North America is severe, 188 AMEKIC.VN MODE OY PKOPAGATING DWARF PEAR-TKEES. we in the west of Europe have a mild season, and vice versa. One remarkable circumstance happened in 1821-22: the great volcano on Mount Hecla (Iceland) broke out in December, 1821, as did Vesuvius a short time after. Mount Hecla also broke out into active eruption on the second of September last, as noticed in my register ; and again I have recorded, from the Copenhagen papers of the 22nd of December last, an account stating, " that Mount Hecla, after a few weeks following the eruption of the 2nd of September, had ceased, but that a more violent eruption had lately (Copenhagen, 22nd December) hap- pened, with a vast discharge of red-hot liquid lava, which had overrun an extensive surface.'* Soon after the turn of Christmas last I attended a public meeting at Worcester, to enter into a subscription for food and coal for the poor of the city and suburbs. I remarked to those who sat near me, that I expected a mild winter, and was asked why I thought so : my reply was, the late prevalence of south- westerly and westerly winds during October, November, and December, and the consequent warmth of the Atlantic Ocean. XXVII. — An Account of an American Mode of Propagating Dwarf Pear-Trees. In a letter to N. Longworth, Esq., President of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society. By W. Smith, M.D. (Communicated by the Cincinnati Society, June, 1845.) In October, 1842, I had a number of quince-bushes dug up and put in trenches in a horizontal position, all the branches were placed a few inches under ground, the young shoots only being left above ; these grew very freely in the spring and summer of 1843, and were budded in July and August ; two or more buds were placed on each, according to the length, a few inches apart. In the spring of 1844, when the pear-buds began to shoot, the young branches in which they were inserted were pegged to the surface of the ground, and as soon as the pears attained the height of three or four inches these branches were covered with earth, and in the end of October were rooted along their whole length, aflbrding a sufficient supply for the separate growth of each, and at this time a number were planted out (these are now fine growing trees). In 1843-44, the branches of the buried bushes sent up innumerable healthy shoots ; in May we began budding these, and continued to bud every favourable day when sap flowed freely in June, July, August, and September. In April, 1844, all were again pegged to the MR. FORTUNE'S ACCOUNT OF WEIGELA ROSE.\. 189 ground, and in like manner covered with earth, the young pear being left out. There is now a fair prospect of an abundant supply of young trees, many of which, I have reason to think, will bear the second or third year from the time they are planted out. The small piece of ground in which I am trying this plan of nursery is a perfect thicket of young trees. It is evident that this will be a permanent mode of procuring them, as there will be a continued supply of stocks. XXVIII. — A further Account of Weigela Rosea. By Mr. For- tune and the Vice-Secretary. With a coloured plate. When I first discovered this beautiful plant* it was growing in a Mandarin's garden on the Island of Chusan, and literally loaded with its fine rose-coloured flowers, which hung in grace- ful bunches from the axils of the leaves and the ends of the branches. The g-arden, which was an excellent specimen of the peculiar style so much admired by the Chinese in the north, was often visited by the officers of the regiments who were quar- tered at Tinghae, and was generally called the Grotto, on ac- count of the pretty rock-work with which it was ornamented. Every one saw and admired the beautiful Weigela, which was also a great favourite with the old gentleman to whom the place belonged. I immediately marked it as one of the finest plants of Northern China, and determined to send plants of it home in every ship until I should hear of its safe arrival. All the gardens of the Mandarins in the north of China are small, and as there is only room for a few plants, these are always of the most select and handsome description. Amongst my collections are several other plants which are common in these gardens, all of which are of great beauty and interest. Azaleas, Roses, Moutans, Glycine sinensis alba. Viburnums (more handsome than our common Gueldres rose), and various other free-flowering shrubs, make these gardens extremely gay, particularly during the spring and early summer months. Weigela rosea is unknown in the southern provinces of China, and therefore I have every reason to suppose that it will prove hardy, or nearly so, in England ; but, if not, it will make a first-rate greenhouse plant, and will take its place by the side of the beautiful Azaleas and Camellias of its own country, I never met with it in a wild state on the Chinese hills, and it is therefore just possible that it may have been originally intro- duced to China from Japan : this, however, is only conjecture. * See page 65. 190 MT. FORTUNE'S ACCOUNT OF WEIGELA ROSEA. In the north of China, where the plant is found, the thermo- meter sometimes sinks within a few degrees of zero, and the country is frequently covered with snow, and yet in these cir- cumstances it sustains" no injury. As this shrub has been liberally distributed amongst the Fel- lows of the Horticultural Society, some remarks upon its habits and cultivation will probably be acceptable. It forms a neat, middle-sized bush, not unlike a Philadelphus in habit, deciduous in winter, and flowers in the months of April and May. One great recommendation to it is that it is a plant of the easiest cul- tivation. Cuttings strike readily any time during the spring or summer months, with ordinary attention ; and the plant itself grows well in any common garden-soil. It should be grown in this country as it is in China, not lied up in that formal un- natural way in which we frequently see plants which are brought to our exhibitions, but a main stem or two chosen for leaders, which in their turn throw out branches from their sides, and then, when the plant comes into bloom, the branches, which are loaded with beautiful flowers, hang down in graceful and natural festoons. It was a plant of this kind which I have already no- ticed as growing in the grotto-garden on the Island of Chusan ; and I doubt not that plants of equal beauty will soon be pro- duced in our gardens in England. The possessors of Weigela rosea had better give it some slight protection during the next winter, by keeping it either in a greenhouse or frame until duplicates are made, when these can be planted out in the open air. The main object should be to enable the plant to ripen its wood well, for when this is done it will not only be more hardy, but it will also flower better in the following season. Its capability of standing out our English winters will be shown in the Garden of the Horticultural Society next winter ; but whether it prove itself a hardy or a greenhouse plant, it is without doubt one of the finest shrubs which have been intro- duced to this country of late years. Robert Fortune. An opportunity has occurred of comparing fresh specimens of both Weigela and Diervilla ; and the result of that com- parison confirms the propriety of regarding them as distinct genera. Both are remarkable among Caprifoils for their one- celled ovary, cut into four false cells by the projection of a pair of double placentae which do not unite in their axis (fig. 2), and both have a double capitate stigma (fig. 3) and a remarkable epigynous gland (fig. 1 a). But while in Weigela that gland is RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 191 free, it, in Diervilla, adheres to tlie corolla ; and in Diervilla the corolla is irregular and gibbous on one side at the base, while in Weigela it is regular and equal-sided at the base. John Lindley. XXIX. — Contributions to a History of the] Relation between Climate and Vegetatio7i in various parts of the Globe. No. 1. — The Vegetation of Rio Janeiro. By George Gardner, Esq., F.L.S., Director of the Eoyal Botanic Garden, Ceylon. There is perhaps, no part of the world where, in an equal ex- tent of country, a greater variety of vegetable forms are to be met with than in the province of Rio de Janeiro ; and it is quite certain that none of the other Brazilian provinces can be at all compared with it. Situated on the verge of the Southern Tropic, and consisting principally of deep valleys and high mountain ranges, some of which reach to an elevation of nearly 7000 feet above the level of the sea, it necessarily presents a variety of soils and situations favourable to different races of plants, and pos- sesses the two great requisites indispensable for their growth ^ — heat and moisture. The neighbourhood of Rio itself has been oftener visited by botanists than any other part of the empire ; but its botanical riches are even now far from being exhausted. The first five months of my residence in the country were devoted to the investigation of this district, and having worked up my col- lections since my return to England, I found them to contain about 20 per cent, of new species ; but as an eternal spring and sum- mer reign in this happy climate, and as every plant has its own season for the production of its flowers, every month is charac- terised by a different flora ; and it can scarcely be expected that the whole of its treasures should be made known for a long time to come. The country round Rio is essentiallj'^ granitic ; and the soil, which is highly argillaceous, has been principally formed by the decomposition of such rocks. It is of a red colour, very tena- cious when wet, and is often from 30 to 40 feet in thickness. It is only in the valleys that an alluvial soil covers this to any depth ; for on the mountain declivities it is seldom more than half a foot in thickness. This is no doubt caused by the heavy rains washing it, as well as the materials of which it is formed, down into the valleys. The rainy season sets in about October, and lasts till April or May ; but from the vicinity of the moun- tains, and of the vast forests by which they are covered, showers fall nearly all the year round. It has been remarked, however. 192 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. within the last twenty years, that the rains have been much less since the country near the city has been so much cleared as it now is of the forests by which it was once covered. During the first few weeks, my walks were confined to the shores, the valleys, and the low wooded hills in the vicinity of the city. On the shores I found the vegetation to vary, as might be expected, according to the nature of the soil, which, when it is muddy, produces thick plantations of Rhizophora Mangle, Avicennia tomentosa, and Laguncularia racemosa, grow- ing quite into the sea. There also, but on the more elevated parts, the Cashew-nut tree is found. Where the shore is formed of loose white sand, it is covered with large patches of Ipomoea Pes Caprce : the long-rooting shoots bind together the soil much in the same way as those of Elymus arenarius and other creeping grasses do that of the shores of Europe. Here also are found Remirea marilima, Polygala Cyparissias, and the glaucous- leaved Acicarpha spathulata, which throws out its spreading branches ; while amid these, and growing almost into the sea, there is great abundance of Sophora tomentosa, a shrub which varies from two feet to ten feet in height, and which, during the flowering season, is covered with large racemes of yellow blossoms, not unlike tliose of the laburnum. This plant has been published by Schrader, and taken up by De Candolle, in his ' Prodromus,' as a new species, under the name of Sophora littoralis ; but it is certainly not distinct from the old S. tomentosa of Linnaeus. I have found it all along the coast of Brazil, from Rio to the Equator. Intermingled with the Sophora grows the Pitanga (Eugenia Michelii, Lam.), a gay myrtle-like shrub, which has a fine appearance, either when covered with its numerous white blossoms, or when loaded with its scarlet fruit, about the size of cherries. Twining among the branches of these and other shrubs along the shore, I found beautiful specimens of Aristo- lochia macrura, and A. rumicifolia. These sandy shores also abound with Opuntia brasiliensis, often covered with a cochineal insect ; and Myrrhinium atropurpureum, an anomalous species of Myrtaceae. Where the shores are rocky the vegetable forms again difl^er. The peculiarities of such places may be well remarked upon a small promontory called the Morro-do-Flamingo, that juts into the bay about two miles south of Rio. It rises about 150 feet above the level of the sea, and is partly cultivated, and partly clothed with its natural vegetation, which exhibits itself in the shape of large shrubs and herbaceous plants, reaching to the very edge of the sea. On the rocky parts, which are apparently desti- tute of soil, several angular Cacti spread out their grotesque limbs ; and on its nearly perpendicular face, great quantities of a KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 193 large species of Tillandsia, Lycopodium rupestre. Anemia fiex- uosa, Pteris palmata, Trylepsis Lhotskyana, and Brassavola tuberculata, have taken up their abode. Where a little vege- table mould has accumulated, Prescottia plantaginea, Gesnera agnregata, Epidendrum ellipticum. Vanilla planifolia, the lovely Vellozia Candida^ and its smaller, though not less beautiful congener, Barbacenia purpurea, vegetate and bloom in the ut- most luxuriance. Of the many species of Vellozia that exist in Bra- zil, this is the only one found on the coast ; the others for the most part inhabiting the mountains in the interior. It often forms a bush from four feet to six feet high, and is a most beautiful object when covered with its large white flowers, which very much re- semble those of Lilium candidum. It has often been tried to be taken to England alive, but witliout success. Plants of it, Iiow- ever, which were raised from seed sent home by me, exist both at Glasgow and Dublin, and may soon be expected to flower. Mr. Murray, of Glasgow, has also raised many of the beautiful purple- flowered species from seeds which I sent to him from the gold and diamond districts ; but it seems to be a genus very impatient of cultivation. Where the soil is deeper, there a natural shrub- bery exists, consisting of several sorts of Pleroma and other Melastoms, Myrtles, Lantanas, Crotons, Bignonias, Jaca- randas, Oxalis Barrelieri, Clusia alba, and herbaceous Compo- site flowers. Rising above these again are a few small trees of a spiny species oi Bombax, Lecythis, and Cleome dendroides, with large racemes of dark purple flowers. In similar situations, Cat- tleya Forbesii is found abundantly, either on the ground or on the branches of the trees, even tliose which overhang the sea. Here, also, are found some beautiful species of Ahneidea, two or three species of Capparis, Alsodeia physiphora, a large shrub belong- ing to the Order of Violets, with panicles of small white flowers, some beautiful climbers belonging to the Order of Malpighi- worts, several species of Laurus, Cordia, Croton, Acacia, and Mimosa. As in other countries, many curious plants are here found in waste places, and by the roadsides, and the stranger from Europe is not a little surprised to find that not a few of tliese are sucli as are commonly cultivated in the hot-houses of his native coun- tiy. Among these I may mention several fruticose Mallow- worts, Asclepias curassavica, Leonotis nepetcEfolia, Loasa parvi- Jlora, Buddlea brasiliensis, Kalanchoe brasiUensis, several Be- gonias and Cleomes, Scoparia dulcis, Turnera cuneifolia, Stel- laria media, Sonchus oleraceus, and several grasses and ferns ; while, where there is moisture, the beautiful Dichorizandra thyrsifiora throws up its thyrse of azure flowers, and various Jussiaas and Melastoms may be seen unfolding their yellow and VOL. I. O 194 KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. ' purple blossoms. The hedges by the roadsides — which are mostly formed of Acacias, Mimosas, Opuntias, Pereskias, and not unfrequently of Limes — are festooned with innumerable climbers, the many-tinted blossoms of which, while they gratify the sight, equally regale the sense of smell by the delicious odours they exhale. They chieHy consist of various species of Convolvulus and Ipomcea, Ruhus urticifolius, Dalechampia, Mikania, Aristolochia, Paulinia, Bignonia, Passijiora, and species of Cucurbits. It must, however, be observed that all these do not flower at once, but present a continual succession of bloom. My first visit to the virgin forests, which cover the mountains, was made along the great aqueduct by which water is conveyed to the city, and which is several miles in length. It winds round from behind the mountain called the Corcovado, which rises to the height of about 2000 feet above the level of the sea. From this excursion I returned loaded with the novelties which it pro- duced. The ascent was made from the Larangeiras valley, at the foot of which there grow some fine large trees of a thorny- stemmed silk-cotton-tree (^Bombax). By the side of the aque- duct, on its lower levels, there exists a fine variety of flowering shrubs, consisting of Amphirox longifolia and Alsodea panicu- lata, both belonging to the Order of Violets ; Metternichia Principis, the beautiful Stiftia chrysantha, the odoriferous Si- maba glandulifera, Pleroma Fontanesianum, and several other species of the same genus — Solarium argenteum, Lacistema pu- bescens, &c. At a greater elevation, in shady valleys, and in ra- vines by the side of little streams, many curious little shrubs and herbaceous plants presented themselves. On the banks of one little stream I found two varieties of Dorstenia ceratosanthes, one of them with entire leaves, resembling those of D. asarifolia ; and in dried parts of the same wood a new caulescent species (I). hisjrida, Hook.). It was near this spot also that I first saw a Tree-Fern : it was the elegant Trichopteris excelsa, which grows both abundantly and luxuriantly beneath the shade of the lofty trees in the dense forest ; but it does not reach to a great height, its stem seldom rising above twelve feet. Under its shade grew many kinds of herbaceous ferns, the most elegant of which, as well as the most common, was Bidymochltena sinuosa. In his work on the Cryptogamia of Brazil, Martins represents this as a tall Tree-Fern, but in the diflferent parts of Brazil where I have observed it, I have never seen it with a stem more than H foot in height. The forest here exhibited all the character- istics of tropical vegetation. The rich black soil which has been forming for centuries in the hollows, from the decay of leaves, &c., is covered with, besides the plants already mentioned, EKLATION BETWEEN CLIiMATE AND VEGETATION. 195 various species of Begonia, Heliconia, Tradescantia, numerous small shrubs, such as Beslerias, Psychotrias, &c. ; while above these again were the graceful Tree-ferns, and the noble Palms, their large fronds trembling with the slightest breeze. But it is the largest of the forest-trees themselves which produce the strongest impression on the mind of the native of the old world. Their thickness, and the height to which they rear their un- branched stems, first claim his attention ; then, in place of the few Mosses and Lichens that cover the trunks and boughs of the trees of his own country, here they are bearded, from their roots to the tips of the smallest branches, with Ferns, Arads, Tillandsias, Cacti, Orchids, Gesnerworts, and many otlier epi- phytal plants. Besides these, the trunks of many are encircled with the twining stems of climbing Bignonias, and other plants of similar habit, the branches of which often become so thick, and compress the tree so much, that it perishes from the too close embrace. These climbers again, which merely ascend the trunk, supporting themselves by their numerous small roots, often become detached after reaching the boughs ; and the whole mass then presents the appearance of a ship's mast, sup- ported by its stays. These rope-like twiners and creeping shrubs, passing from tree to tree, descending from tlie branches to tlie ground, and ascending again to other boughs, intermingle them- selves in a thousand ways, and render a passage through some parts of the woods both difficult and annoying. After reaching the highest level of the aqueduct, a good path leads along it for upwards of two miles, and here a different kind of vegetation presents itself. In damp shady places grew the common water- cress, and on the rocks, Marchantia polymorpha, Funaria hy- grometrica, Polytrichum juniper inum, and Anthoceros punctata, which, being all old acquaintances, recalled many pleasing re- collections of home. Along with these were associated many other fine species of Mosses, and some delicate Ferns. Nu- merous species of Begonia grew on the faces of the moist rocks, particularly where they were overshadowed by the large trees of the forest. One species {B. longipes), bearing large panicles of white flowers, and leaves as large as those of Petasites vulgaris, threw up its stem to the height of 10 or 12 feet, among a vast quantity of the large and beautiful Heliconia brasiliensis. Be- gonia argyrostigma and B. sanguinea were very abundant. On dry rocks, in the woods here, I first met with the beautiful Epi- phyllum truncatum, growing along with the no less beautiful Nematanthus longipes. The Corcovado Mountain rises to a considerable height above the highest level of the aqueduct. The ascent is from the north- west side, that which looks towards the sea being nearly one per- o2 196 KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. pendicular precipice. On the early part of the ascent some of the forest trees are large, and reach to a great height. The underwood consists of small Palms, Melastoms, Myrtles, Tree- Ferns, Crotons, RubiacecB, &c. The herbaceous part of the vegetation is made up of Feriis, Dorstetiias, Heliconias, and in the more open places, of a few large Grasses. Towards the summit the trees became finer, and of a more stunted growth ; and shrubs, especially of the genus Croton, are abundant, inter- mingled in profusion with a small kind of Bamboo, and large herbaceous Grasses. Two shrubs principally occupy the top — a species of Pleroma, and Franciscea ramosissima. In the clefts of the rocks grew a few small orchidaceous plants, and Gesnera tuherosa, which was very common. It was here also that I first met with the beautiful Dipladenia crassinoda. The bare top of the mountain itself, which consists of granite of a very coarse structure, is in many places covered with small Lichens, while in shaded spots I observed some patches of Pol i/trichumjuniperinum. The top of another mountain of nearly the same altitude, called the Pedra Bonita, about 15 miles distant from Rio, I found to bear a somewhat different vegetation. On the edge of a preci- pice, on the eastern side of this mountain, I first met with the beautiful Cattleya labiata, which with some difliculty, and no small risk of falling over, I managed to reach, and obtained both flovvering specimens and good plants. A great part of the top was covered witli Vellozia Candida, on the branches of which grew two species of Epidendru7n. Along with the Vellozia grew large patches of Zygopetaliwi Mackaii, and two beau- tiful subscandent species of Dipladenia, one (Z). violacea) with large dark violet-coloured flowers, the other (Z). crassinoda) with large white flowers. They have both tuberous roots, and the flowers of both exhale an odour similar to tliat of the common Primrose. Both species have since been introduced to England. In a marshy spot grew a fine Utricularia ( U. longifolia, Gardn.), with racemes of large purple blossoms, and spathulate leaves about a foot long. The bare dry parts of the rocky summit are covered with one of the most beautiful of all Lichens ( Cladonia ■perfilata. Hook.). It is always a difficult thing to ascertain what the large trees in tropical forests are, as it is with difficulty that their flowers are obtained. Those on the mountains near Rio are made up principally of different species of Ficus, Bombax, Myrtles, Melastoms, Cassia, Lecythis, Bignonia, Swartzia, My- ristica, &c. The Gavea is another mountain nearly of the same height as the Corcovado, but much barer of vegetation. It stands between the sea and the Pedra Bonita, and indeed its base is nearly washed by the waves. In bushy places by the side of the sea, at KELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AKD VEGETATION. 197 this place, a new species of Tropaeolum ( T. orthoceros, Gardn.) ^rows very abundantly. It is somewhat similar to T. aduncum, the principal ditference being' its straight spur. Here also the lovely Gloxinia speciosa is. to "be met with in the greatest profusion in clefts of the rocks, where a little soil has accumulated. G. cau- lescens is certainly nothing more than a variety of the former in a more luxuriant state : at this place, as also in the valley of Rio Comprido, where I first met with them, they both grew abundantly together. This mountain also presents a precipitous face to the sea, and in the expectation of finding some orchidace- ous plants on it, I paid it a visit. In the belt of native wood, which exists between the sea and the base of the perpendicular face, I met with Dichorizandra thyrsijiora, and several fine Ferns, different from any I had elsewhere seen. On reaching the face of the mountain, I found its lower part covered with various species of Bromelia, Tdlandsia, Begonia, Gesnera, and Cactus, with other plants which affect such situations. At an elevation of several hundred feet I observed patches of a beautiful orchi- daceous plant in full blossom, which I have no doubt was Cat- tleija lahiata. There this lovely flower still continues to vegetate, and will do so for generations to come, far from the reach of the greedy collector. In bushy places here, I first met with Alstrce- meria sahilloides, Mart., a large climbing species, bearing a very large umbel of red and green flowers. An excursion to Jurujuba Bay, a little inlet on the opposite side of the bay from Rio de Janeiro, was productive of many interesting species of plants. It was there on dry bushy hills that I first saw, in a wild state, the really beautiful Bougai?i- villea spectabilis. In some places it grew very abundantly, and as it climbs up into the tops of the trees, near which it grows, the brilliant colour of the flowers renders it conspicuous in the woods at a great distance. Of this plant I observed three well- marked varieties,— one with flowers of a very pale pink colour, a second has them of a dark crimson, and the third of a bright scarlet colour. But the most interesting of all the plants that I have met with, especially to the botanist, was a species of St. Hilaire's new genus Affonsia. It belongs to the Leguminous Order, and its nearest aflfinity is with Inga; but what is very remarkable, every flower contains five distinct carpels. In the midst of a coffee field situated beyond the hills of Jurujuba, I obtained fine specimens of a species of the beautiful genus Petrea. It was twining round the stem and up into the branches of a large tree, which had been spared from the destruction of the virgin forest of which it had formerly constituted part. Lafocnsia hrasiliensis was another of my acquisitions. It grew in great plenty in a marsh along with Typha angmtifolia, form- 198 RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. ing a handsome shrub about 12 feet high, which, when covered with its large white blossoms, has a striking appearance. Before quitting the subject of Rio de Janeiro, I shall briefly notice one or two plants which still remain to be introduced to this country, but which would be highly ornamental to our hot- houses. 1. Stiftia chrysantha, Mik. — This is one of the most beautiful shrubs indigenous to Brazil. It is not uncommon by the aque- duct, about halfway up the Corcovado ; but from experiments which have been made by Mr. Riedel, it seldom succeeds when transplanted, nor does it often perfect seeds. It is a shrub from 8 to 14 feet high, elegant in habit, and with dark-green leaves, not unlike those of the Orange. It belongs to the Composite Order, and to the Mutisiaceous division of it. The flowers are very large, and of a beautiful orange colour, which, when seen from a distance, gives the plant all the appearance of an Orange-tree loaded with fruit. It seems to prefer a dry ar- gillaceo-ferrugineous soil. 2. Mettertiichia Principis, Mik. — This is also a shrub, but smaller than the preceding, and grows in similar situations. It produces an abundance of pure white flowers about two inches long, not unlike those of a Datura. 3. Simaba glandulifera, Gardn. — A shrub with a simple stem from 6 to 10 feet high, and a cluster of spreading pinnated leaves from 2 to 3 feet long at the top, which gives it somewhat the appearance of a Palm. Out of the centre of these proceeds an immense panicle, sometimes 3 feet long, of yellow, highly odori- ferous flowers. 4. Afiiphirox longifolia, Spreng. — This is one of the many violaceous shrubby plants which exist in Brazil. It is rather rare in the woods of the Corcovado, grows to the height of 8 to 12 feet, and produces large panicles of pure white, violet-shaped, sweet-smelling flowers. 5. Diclidanthera laurifolia, Mart. — A large climbing shrub which diffuses its branches among those of the trees near which it grows. It belongs to the Order of Sapotads, produces abundance of small yellowish-coloured flowers, and a black eat- able fruit, of the size of a cherry. 6. Myrrhinium atropurpureum, Schott. — A myrtaceous shrub, from 4 to 6 feet high, not uncommon on the sandy shores of Rio. Its flowers, which are of a dark purple colour, are produced from the older branches, and are remarkable, in the Order to which they belong, for their long exserted and definite stamens. (199 ) XXX. — A brief Account of the Naras Fruit, and of the attempts that have been made to cultivate it. By the Vice- Secretary. When Captain Sir James Alexander visited the country near Wahvich Bay, on the south-west coast of Africa, he found in that excessively dry, hot, and barren region, a fruit called the Naras, of which he speaks thus : — " I wandered about the broad bed of the river for an hour or two, looking earnestly into every patch of reeds or long grass for moisture, and digging with our hands in the clay and sand at the most likely places for finding this indispensable element ; but no water could we find. With our mouths as dry as a dusty road, and hardly able to speak, we looked about for some green gi'ass to chew, and to our most agreeable surprise we found the new fruit Naras, of which I had first heard from the Boschmen of Ababies." " The Naras was growing on little knolls of sand ; the bushes were about 4 or 5 feet high, without leaves, and with opposite thorns on the light and dark-green striped branches. The fruit has a coriaceous rind, rough with prickles, is twice the size of an orange, or 15 or 18 inches in circumference, and inside it resembles a melon, as to seed and pulp. I seized a half ripe one and sucked it eagerly for the moisture it contained ; but it burned my tongue and palate exceedingly, which does not happen when this most valuable fruit is ripe ; it has then a luscious sub-acid taste." — Alexander's Expedition of Discovery, vol. ii , p. 68. A rude figure of the plant accompanies this account (p. 52), and Sir James Alexander adds, that the thermometer stood at 90° in the shade. On his return from his expedition, Captain Alexander gave me some seeds of this Naras, which were sown in the garden of the Horticultural Society and presented to several of the Fellows. They were in appearance entirely those of a gourd ; they germi- nated readily, and produced a stiff, spiny, angular-stemmed shrub, which, after growing for a few weeks with all the appearance of rude health, suddenly became sickly and died — not only in the Society's Garden, but with every one else who attempted to cul- tivate it. In these attempts moisture and heat, and dryness and heat, were tried and varied, all with uniform bad success. The loss was so total, and so little was seen of the plant, that it had become almost forgotten, when a fi-esh supply of seeds was received from John Turner, Esq., of 73 A, Theobald's Road, London, who, in reply to the inquiries that were addressed to him, favoured the Society with the follow ing memorandum : — " In reply to your inquiry respecting the climate of Walwich Bay, I can give you very little information ; my stay at the Bay 200 MR. VICE-SECRETAKY'S ACCOUNT OF THE NAP.AS FRUIT. was too short (only two or three days) to enable me to collect many particulars. In my journal I find no allusion to rain ; but as far as my recollection serves me, I believe, from conversations I had with the English residents, that they have no regular periodical rains, and that indeed rain rarely or never falls. They have, however, heavy dews nightly all the year round, and water 5 or 6 feet below the surface in most parts of the valley. This water is somewhat brackish. " The valley is of limited extent, and is merely the channel of the river Kousip, a river which flows only once in five years, so the natives say : in the intervals between the floods water can only be obtained by digging for it. The channel is bounded by hills of loose sand, utterly destitute of vegetation ; and these hills extend north and south along the coast for hundreds of miles. I sailed along the coast from Angra Pequena to Great Fish Bay, a distance of 700 miles ; and although I landed at many places, the Naras of Walwich Bay was the only edible vegetable I met with. In such a locality it is invaluable ; without it the natives could not remain near the coast. I planted some seeds at Great Fish Bay, but I doubt if the locality is suitable. " I think that infinite service might be conferred on the natives and settlers in Australia, by the introduction of the plant into the interior of that country, the peculiarities of the soil and climate being so similar to that of Walwich Bay. It would also be a great boon to the natives of the interior of the Cape, and would no doubt thrive on the banks of the Orange River. " Any quantity of the seed might be obtained by applying to the trading settlers, Messrs. Lawton and Dixon, of Walwich Bay, who have regular communication with their agents at St. Helena." These seeds have again been raised in the garden, where Mr. Donald, the temporary Superintendent of the Hothouse department, has treated them in the following manner : — The seeds were sown in dry sandy loam, in a pit supplied with bottom heat ; some in a pot, others in soil spread over the bottom of the pit. Those in the pot did not germinate, but those in the soil on the bottom of the pit were all above ground in five days, under a temperature of 80°, with a little air but no shading. To supply moisture a pan full of water was placed beside the plants, seven in number. For about a week they appeared very healthy, then they began to lose their green colour, and to die off one by one without producing a single rough leaf. Upon examining their roots they appeared shrivelled up as if the want of moisture had been the cause of the failure. On the 3rd of April a few more seeds were sown in exactly the same way, some in a pot and some on the bottom of the pit : ME. FOKSYTH ON GAME PRESERVES AND FENCES. 201 all germinated in six days. To the roots of those in the soil on the bottom of the pit, water was given every three or four days ; under this treatment they seemed to do better than without water, but they all died in a week or two. Two more plants are still under treatment with a copious supply of water and a slight shade ; and they are now about 4 inches high, producing spiny- looking stems. What the issue of the experiment may be it is impossible to foresee ; and these memoranda are published chietly for the pur- pose of attracting attention to the existence of this fruit, in the hope that others will attempt to grow it, and report to the Society their success. For there now remains no problem in Horticulture more difficult to solve than the way of preparing skilfully our artificial climates for the inhabitants of that heated atmosphere, intense light, heavy dews, and barren soil of Southern Africa, where the nails of the hand curl back and split in the season of dryness. XXXI. — Game Preserves and Fences. Part the First. By Mr. Alexander Forsyth, C.M.H.S., Gardener to the Earl of Shrewsbury at Alton Towers. (Communicated June 3, 1846.) The species of trees and shrubs that are the most valuable for game-cover are unquestionably the evergreens, since they yield shelter when it is most wanted. Some species of evergreens not only yield shelter and a hiding-place for game and birds of song at all times ; but, moreover, supply food, and that at the scarcest tim.e of the year, namely, in winter and early in the spring. Per- nettya mucronata, for example, is now in the middle of April covered with berries. Cotoneaster microphylla, a truly elegant shrub, of the easiest culture imaginable, is now loaded with flowers and fruit. The larger growing cranberry ripens plenty of fruit as large as the berries of the grape-vine, very late in the autumn ; and of these berries the birds are so fond, that they seldom will permit a ripe fruit to remain for the table, unless it be covered with a net. The Holly glitters with its rosy crop at Christmas. The Yew-tree is seldom found empty of fruit. The Gorse bursts its pods in the breeding season for the chickens of the wild fowl. The Scotch-fir, and indeed most of the cone- bearing trees, have always grain in store, for the seeds remain a year or two on the trees after they are ripe. The berries of the Mahonias are produced in such profusion, that they are used to feed domestic poultry. Fuchsia discolor, from Port Famine, 202 MR FORSYTH OX GAME PRESERVES AXD FENCES. threatens of itself to overthrow and revolutionize the plants now used as game-cover, for it is as hardy as the Highland fir, pro- duces a fair amount of flowers to recommend it in the first place, and this is succeeded by a wholesome berry, which, besides feed- ing game, is very useful for tarts ; and this berry contains per- haps 50 or 100 seeds, by which the plant can be multiplied to any extent, not to speak of its being so easily obtained from cuttings and layers ; and as this plant will make shoots 3 feet long in one season, it has only to get a beginning, and it will readily establish itself in the edges of woodland, and adjoining the rides and drives, where its pendent flowers will every year attract the more attention as the plant gets higher ; for all the tribe of Fuchsias requires to be looked up to to be seen to advan- tage. The common Laurel makes a substantial cover, and though its fruit is of no importance, it must ever be of tlie first class among plants for ornamental shrubberies within enclosures where cattle cannot reach its poisonous leaves. Gaultheria Shal- lon has been highly praised for game food and cover ; but I have not been able to discern its superiority : in fact, I consider that the common Sage is quite as good as the Gaultheria for these purposes ; for the Sage produces seeds as large as yellow mustard-seeds, and the plant grows much quicker than Gaul- theria and to a greater height, and is infinitely more easy to increase ; but this is not all, since the day may soon come for this plant to be turned to great account, for I have heard it said that the Chinese were surprised to find us sending to China for tea- leaves when we had sage at home : add to this, that the sage will grow in either loam or peat, whereas the Gaultheria re- quires peat, and, like the soil it thrives in, its leaves have a dark and dull hue : the sage, on the contrary, has a summer mantle of the most beautiful sea-green, and this is changed in autumn to a warm grey, and in this latter dress the plant contrasts well with glades and groups of plants of other shades of colour. The lowly shrub Thyme makes a good sward for green food in winter, and its silvery striped variety contrasting with the yellow or golden thyme are pleasing objects, and form the lowest link in the chain where woodland dies away in grass or gravel, &c. The Box, though a beautiful shrub in itself, makes but a sorry cover, on account of the close and thick-set habit of its spray and branches. The Privet is well known, and of it I may remark, that it is just better than nothing. Although I have succeeded many years ago in striking cuttings of Arbor vitaj in phials of water, and have recently obtained those beautiful trees by hundreds from cuttings in common earth, I should decidedly object to the introduction of either of these, or the Junipers, for they are all too close and stiflT, and could at best but form a MK. FOKSYTH OM GAME PKESEBVES AND FENCES. 203 hungry home for game and birds of song ; for their fruits are small and strong flavoured, and as for their flowers, they are still less interesting than their fruits. Passing over the culture of Buck-wheat, Potatoes, Jerusalem Artichokes, and such like herbaceous plants and culinary crops usually cultivated to feed Pheasants, &c., as things too well known to require any notice in a paper of this nature, I come to the crowning plant for game cover, the Rhododendron, which has hitherto been confined to the small and expensive patches of the flower-garden and shrubbery; but which now seems destined, and that at no very distant period, to skirt the moss and moor- land by miles along the mountain path, and closing over the mountain rill ; for as surely as Heather grows now in these loca- lities, so surely will the Rhododendron occupy the same soil, and thrive with equal luxuriance if it has an equal chance, as I shall endeavour to show before I leave this subject ; but I hasten to the consideration of the main question, namely, the culture, and more particularly the propagation, of evergreen shrubs for underwood in established plantations, where the an- nual crop of acorns would go far to keep flocks of Pheasants, if we could only contrive to eke out the supply of food during the season when the acorns are growing, and could defend the game from the weather and their enemies by a well-ordered plantation of evergreen underwood. In by far the greater part of the existing forests, wood